tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-31470045688224474502024-03-23T20:08:00.259+08:00 Searching in HistoryBob Corcuerahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14748111488274035197noreply@blogger.comBlogger374125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3147004568822447450.post-1674874868975451462023-02-06T00:01:00.002+08:002023-02-06T00:01:00.188+08:00First King of the World: Who was Naram-Sin?<div style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><i>“Naram-Sin, son of Manistusu, ruled for 56 years”</i> - an entry carved into the Sumerian King List. Naram-Sin (r. 2,255 - 2,218 BCE) ruled over the Akkadian Empire and under his rule the military threats both within and without the Empire grew. He kept his grandfather Sargon the Great’s empire intact and safe, reaching the apex of their power.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></span><span style="font-size: x-large; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjxXi2Wohyl_DRyKUaR3p7GEAFClYvh54iI86u1dz5Qq2-62MjUrNw05RRCRUw_LbnToZKzSWKrzRK_0b2MS8IA3udE79VN6rr5dKjbrjeDGNhNVNv8vaWrST6o2cvA20RX-2Pr50sAZTaLeiFfHtoLghhdcDd7PiFpkKURs__G1VyepsNsYP5ByzDm/s1560/Victory%20Stele%20of%20Naram-Sin.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1418" data-original-width="1560" height="535" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjxXi2Wohyl_DRyKUaR3p7GEAFClYvh54iI86u1dz5Qq2-62MjUrNw05RRCRUw_LbnToZKzSWKrzRK_0b2MS8IA3udE79VN6rr5dKjbrjeDGNhNVNv8vaWrST6o2cvA20RX-2Pr50sAZTaLeiFfHtoLghhdcDd7PiFpkKURs__G1VyepsNsYP5ByzDm/w589-h535/Victory%20Stele%20of%20Naram-Sin.jpg" width="589" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Famous image of Naram-Sin wearing a horned hat in his victory stele</span></td></tr></tbody></table></span><span><a name='more'></a></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b style="font-family: arial; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: large;">Military Affairs</span></b></div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></div></span></div><span id="docs-internal-guid-872a4bf0-7fff-e53b-70af-4bdac957c535" style="font-size: large;"><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Naram-Sim encountered series of insurrections similar to that of his father Manishtusu and his uncle Rimush, however, in a larger scale. Furthermore, external threats began to question the might of the Akkadian Empire. The result of his military campaigns determined his place in his family’s and world’s history.</span></p><span style="font-family: arial;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The spirit of independence, once again, and self rule among the city-states lingered even after decades from the passing of Sargon the Great. Surprisingly, Kish, the birthplace of the renowned first Empire-builder, rebelled under the leadership of Iphur-kishi and gained the support of Lugal-Anne of Ur as well as the Sumerian city-state of Uruk. City-states of “Cutha, Tiwa, Wurumu, Kazallu, Giritab, Apiak, Ibrat, Dilbat,...and Sipar,” according to an inscription, all rose up in rebellion against Naram-Sin. According to the inscription, he fought 9 battles just to crush the massive rebellion. </span></p><span style="font-family: arial;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Afterwards, Naram-Sin waged war against bordering countries. He subdued the Gutians led by Gula-an. He also crushed the Lullubi under Anu-Banini. In celebration of his victory against the latter, he erected a stele with himself having all the trappings of divinity - a giant figure with horned-helmet carrying a bow and arrow - climbing up a mountain subduing the Lullabi under a starry sky (the stars being associated with the Akkadian god of Anum). </span></p><span style="font-family: arial;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Alongside the Lullabi, he also crushed Ebla in the north. He later erected the palace in Nagar (Tell Barak) to cement control over the region. And so, the Akkadian Empire once again had the cedar forest of Lebanon, the Taurus Mountains, and the Amanus Mountains in its borders. </span></p><span style="font-family: arial;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">With his massive military achievements, Naram-Sim claimed victory and saw it as the gods’ approval of his reign.</span></p><span style="font-family: arial;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><b>Divine King</b></span></p><span style="font-family: arial;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The success of his military campaigns, based on available inscriptions, allowed Naram-Sin to elevate himself above a mere King of a city state. With his elevation began a tradition that influenced future conquerors and Kings in Mesopotamia. Moreover, in order to keep the empire, he continued policies that his grandfather used before.</span></p><span style="font-family: arial;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The victories in the battlefield gave Naram-Sin the bragging rights and the reason to upgrade his title. He faced foes larger than his predecessors, if based on the inscriptions. He decided to style himself as the <i>Sarru Kibrat’arbaim</i> or King of the Four Corners. A title coveted by Babylonians, Assyrians, and even by the Persians to mark their success as conquerors and rulers of the known world. </span><i style="font-family: arial; white-space: pre-wrap;">The same way as the appeal of title of Caesar or Czar and Holy Roman Emperor</i><span style="font-family: arial; white-space: pre-wrap;">. </span><span style="font-family: arial; white-space: pre-wrap;">An inscription stated:</span></p><span style="font-family: arial;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"></span></p><blockquote><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">“Naram-Sin, the strong one, King of Akkad: when the four corners (of the universe) together were hostile to him, he remained victorious in nine battles in a single year because of the love of Ishtar bore for him, and he took captive those kings who had risen against him. Because he had been able to preserve his city in the time of crisis, (the inhabitants of) his city asked from Ishtar in Eanna, from Enlil in Nippur, from Dagan in Tuttul, from Ninhursaga in Kesh, from Enki in Eridu, from Sin in Ur, from Shamash in Sippar, and from Nergal in Kutha, that he be the god of their city Akkad, and they built a temple for him in the midst of Akkad.”</span></p><span style="font-family: arial;"><div style="text-align: justify;"></div></span></blockquote><span style="font-family: arial;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Furthermore, He ordered the use of a star and write Anum with the former the symbol of the latter, the Akkadian god of the sky and father of gods. This furthered his assumption of divinity. Hence, besides a conqueror, Naram-Sin made himself a living god-King.</span></p><span style="font-family: arial;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Naram-Sin used, not just status and titles to create a sense of invincibility, he also used marriage and nepotism. During the Empire’s foundation, Sargon the Great appointed his daughter Enheduanna to an influential post of priestess of Nanna, the moon goddess, in the city of Ur to settle Akkadian rule over the city. Decades later, Naram-Sin did the same, appointing her daughters as priestesses in temples for influential deities and cities. For example her daughter Enmenanna took the same post as Enheduanna. Some of Naram-Sin’s daughters, though, lived in various city-states as wives of local rulers, such as the case of Taram-Agade who stayed in Urakesh. </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Naram-Sin hoped for his achievements, titles, and appointments to keep the Empire intact. Nevertheless, the margins of the Empire threatened the power of the Sargonic Dynasty.</span></p><span style="font-family: arial;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><b>Death and Succession</b></span></p><span style="font-family: arial;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Naram-Sin passed away in 2,218 BCE and his son Sar-Kali-Sarri succeeded to the throne. However, the reign of Sar-Kali-Sarri saw intensifying attacks and invasions from neighboring countries, especially the Gutians. Besides the invasion, a curse, brought by Naram-Sin, said to have brought the decline of the Empire. The part of the curse stated:</span></p><span style="font-family: arial;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"></span></p><blockquote><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">“May your clay be returned to its abzu (fresh water from the underground, May it be clay cursed by Enki! </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">May your grain be returned to its furrow, may it be grain cursed by Ezinu! </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">May your timber be returned to its forest, may it be timber cursed by Ninilduma! </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">May the cattle slaughterer slaughter his wife, may your sheep butcher butcher his child! </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">May water wash away your pauper as he is looking for...! </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">May your prostitute hang herself at the entrance to her brothel!... </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">May your gold be bought for the price of silver, may your silver be bought for the price of pyrite (?), and may your copper be bought for the price of lead!" </span></p></blockquote><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"></span></p><span style="font-family: arial;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The Curse of Agade brought about by the gods due to Naram-Sin’s desecration of a temple of Enlil during his military campaigns. Regardless, half-century after the death of Naram-Sin the Empire finally fell.</span></p><span style="font-family: arial;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><b>Summing Up</b></span></p><span style="font-family: arial;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Naram-Sin witnessed the height of Akkadian military prowess and started a political tradition that later ruler and Empire builders used. He faced bigger enemies than his predecessors and succeeded. He used his success to justify his new title - King of the Four Corners - an ancient version of King of the world.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; white-space: pre-wrap;">Naram-Sin is the world’s first King of the world - in a sense. He built up from the works of his grandfather, father, and uncle. He subjugated growing rebellions and achieved expanding the Empire’s borders. Nevertheless, he failed to cement order as rebellions stubbornly continued, worse growing repression further fanned the growing discontent and hatred towards the Sargonic dynasty. Despite being Mesopotamia's King of the world, the end of his reign marked the start of the Akkadian Empire’s decline - a pattern history came to be known well - from apex towards decline and downfall.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; white-space: pre-wrap;"><b>Bibliography:</b></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; white-space: pre-wrap;"><b>Books:</b></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">Edwards, I.E.S. et. al. (eds.). <i>The Cambridge Ancient History: Early History of the Middle East, Volume 1 Part 2</i>. New York, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"><span id="docs-internal-guid-f8daeba8-7fff-101d-3fe6-4c7cfb22eabd"><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline;">Hallo, William & William Kelly Simpson. <i>The Ancient Near East: A History</i>. New York, New York: Harcourt BRace Jovanovich, Inc., 1971.</span></p><div><span style="font-family: Arial; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline;"><br /></span></div></span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">Hamblin, William. <i>Warfare in the Ancient Near East: Holy Warriors at the Dawn of History</i>. New York, New York: Routledge, 2007.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"><span id="docs-internal-guid-e36c6f45-7fff-9c5e-033a-5d9ffba83d60"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline;">Van de Mieroop, Marc. <i>A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000-323 BC</i>. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing, 2007.</span></span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"><span><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline;"><br /></span></span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"><span><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline;"><b>General Reference:</b></span></span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"><span id="docs-internal-guid-b7f7abb6-7fff-058c-f77b-77f33060dcc2"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline;">“Naram-Sin.” <i>Who’s Who in the Ancient Near East</i>. By Gwendolyn Leick. New York, New York: Routledge, 1999. </span></span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"><b>Website:</b></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: arial; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">“Sumerian King List.” </span><span style="color: black; font-family: arial; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><i>Ashmolean Museum Oxford</i></span><span style="color: black; font-family: arial; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. Accessed on December 18, 2022. URL: </span><a href="https://www.ashmolean.org/sumerian-king-list" style="font-family: arial; text-align: left; text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">https://www.ashmolean.org/sumerian-king-list</span></a><span style="font-family: arial; text-align: left;"> </span></div></span>Bob Corcuerahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14748111488274035197noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3147004568822447450.post-56435820290581746602023-02-03T00:01:00.006+08:002023-02-11T18:34:41.160+08:00Sons of Sargon the Great of Akkad<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Establishing an empire is one thing, maintaining it is another. This beset the successors of Sargon the Great after their patriarch passed away, living them with history's earliest known empire. Unprecedented, Sargon's sons and grandson worked extremely hard to follow a tough act.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJhZa1yd3QEjOwTypghU2n4mptSedZKIH1P5ja1_nh1Mpxm3NuPX1JOleLiSga5SH5gI0SKcvnt_roqGWKu0LgJm0shEU2CuRJCkX8mcyO-X75gKu7tzhGb36tkdLSmm0uxSHapXblQLP7FvHSwP2JQ7oTDKU09yLRXgKNet-Fj1r8-nO6cSWINZJx/s872/Battle%20between%20Sumerians%20and%20Semites%20led%20by%20Sargon.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="872" data-original-width="736" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJhZa1yd3QEjOwTypghU2n4mptSedZKIH1P5ja1_nh1Mpxm3NuPX1JOleLiSga5SH5gI0SKcvnt_roqGWKu0LgJm0shEU2CuRJCkX8mcyO-X75gKu7tzhGb36tkdLSmm0uxSHapXblQLP7FvHSwP2JQ7oTDKU09yLRXgKNet-Fj1r8-nO6cSWINZJx/w540-h640/Battle%20between%20Sumerians%20and%20Semites%20led%20by%20Sargon.jpg" width="540" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: x-small;">Akkadians battling the Sumerians (left)</span></td></tr></tbody></table><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><span><a name='more'></a></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b>1. Rimush (r. circa 2,279 - 2,270 BCE)</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Rimush began a tradition that will meet every new Akkadian ruler upon ascension - suppressing rebellions. Apparently, the spirit of independence among the Sumerians and other subjugated countries of Sargon lingered. Even before the end of founder's reign, some city-states already began to stand up against Akkadian imperialism. When the Akkadian leader fell, the conquered saw an opportunity to rise up. It then became a baptismal of fire for every new Akkadian king, testing their martial prowess and proving their qualification to rule a vast multi-ethnic Empire. Rimush unfortunately added his own brutal twist that many future Akkadian rulers followed as an example.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Sargon's son left inscriptions celebrating his military campaigns and boasting the number of casualties he inflicted upon his enemies. The cities of Adab and Zabal experienced Rimush's wrath.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><blockquote>"Rimush, King of the World, was victorious over Adab and Zabala in battle and struck down 15,718 captives. Further he captured Meskigala, Governor of Adab, and Lugalgalzu, Governor of Zabala. He conquered their 2 cities and destroyed the walls of both of them. Further, he expelled many men from their 2 cities and annihilated them."</blockquote></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Thus, the Akkadians began the policy of mass deportation towards the defeated. A practice emulated by the later Assyrians and Babylonians. On the other side, the Israelites became as a famous example of victim of the practice under Babylon.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Forced migration, enslavement, and complete annihilation of cities became Rimush's instrument to instill fear among his subjects, nevertheless, many continued to resist. Rimush defeated more Sumerian city states such as Ur, led by King Kaku, Umma, and Lagash. The Elamites also rebelled against the Akkadian Empire and gained support from various countries including the far off Meluhha, which suspected to be located in the Indus Valley. Rimush crushed the rebel coalition in the Battle of the Middle River around 2,273 BCE.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span id="docs-internal-guid-8d627f0b-7fff-0528-be22-0e8bdcdba107"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><blockquote>“Rimush, King of the world, was victorious in battle over Abalgamash, King of Parahshum. Zahara, Elam [Gupin, and Meluhha,] had assembled in Parahshum for battle, but he Rimush was victorious over them and struck down 16,212 men and took 4,216 captives. Further, he captured Emahsini, king of Elam, and all the nobles of Elam. Further, he captured Siga’u, general of Parahshum, and Sargapi, general of Zahara, in between the cities of Awan and Susa, by the 'Middle River.' Further, he heaped up over them a burial mound in the are of the city. Further, he conquered the cities of Elam, destroyed their walls, and tore out the foundations of Parahshum from land of Elam. Thereby Rimush, king of the world, ruled Elam. The god Enlil showed him the way to victory… When he conquered Elam and Parahshum, he took away 30 minas (roughly a pound each) of gold, 3,600 minas of copper and 300 male and female slaves and dedicated them to the god of Enlil."</blockquote></span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Around 2,270 BCE, due to unknown reasons, perhaps because of his ruthlessness, Rimush may have been assassinated in a coup. His brother Manishtusu came power, but whether his brother orchestrated the palace revolt or someone who staged a counter coup remained an open question.</span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b>2. Manishtusu (r. circa 2,270 - 2,255 BCE)</b></span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large; white-space: pre-wrap;">Manishtusu's (Manishtushu) followed the same narrative as his brother. His reign, however, accomplished distinguishable actions in contrast to his brother. Nevertheless, he followed the same faith as his predecessor.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large; white-space: pre-wrap;">Manishtusu, translated to "who is with him?", ascended after his brother, even suspected twin brother, fell to assassins. Just like his brother, insurrections erupted afterwards. He, however, managed to subdue them. Then, around 2,260 BCE, he embarked in an unprecedented naval expedition against Anshan and Shirishum along with 32 allied countries. An inscription stated:</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><blockquote>"Manishtusu, king of the world: when he conquered Anshan and Shirishum (south-west Iran), had ships cross the Lower Sea. The cities across the Sea, 32, assembled for battle, but he was victorious over them. Further, he conquered their cities, struck down their rulers, and after he roused them his troops plundered as far as the Silver Mines. He quarried the black stone of the mountains across the Lower Sea, loaded it on ships, and moored the ships at the quay of Akkad. He fashioned a statue of himself and dedicated it to the god Enlil"</blockquote></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large; white-space: pre-wrap;">The black stones, called diorites, turned into obelisks and statues, such as the Manishtushu Obelisk now displayed in the Louvre. Besides an example of the King's exploits, it also showed his distribution of 4 parcel of lands to his officials.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large; white-space: pre-wrap;">Manishtushu also received the credit of rebuilding the Temple of Ishtar in Niniveh.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large; white-space: pre-wrap;">Ultimately, according to an omen, Manishtushu's reign came to an end after his assassination by courtiers using their cylinder seals. His fall led to the ascension of his son, Naram-sin, and the apex of Akkadian imperial power.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large; white-space: pre-wrap;"><b>Bibliography:</b></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large; white-space: pre-wrap;">Edwards, I.E.S. et. al. (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History: Early History of the Middle East, Volume 1 Part 2. New York, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large; white-space: pre-wrap;">Hamblin, William. Warfare in the Ancient Near East: Holy Warriors at the Dawn of History. New York, New York: Routledge, 2007.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large; white-space: pre-wrap;"><b>General Reference:</b></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">"Manishtusu." Who's Who in Ancient Near East. Edited by Gwendolyn Leick. New York, New York: Routledge, 1999.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></span></div>Bob Corcuerahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14748111488274035197noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3147004568822447450.post-44834082800875752652023-02-02T00:00:00.006+08:002023-02-02T00:00:00.165+08:00World's Earliest Success Story - Who was Sargon the Great?<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><i>Sargon the Great of Akkad founded the Akkadian Empire (r. 2,334 - 2,279 BCE) defying boundaries in military tactics and administration to create a multi-lingual great power. His achievements inspired future empire-builders in the region. In modern sense, Sargon the Great is the world's first success story - from "an orphan" left adrift in a river to a forger of an empire that dominated the Mesopotamia for more than a century.</i></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiZG7NMkDdNJZsQB0TBDhhSIx1z542ATm_btPT4xuqLwXDN1yHqt1zxvv2xHDbP2biLmi4T9K8jIIcS8raX-gBE3cVk2eeZZ7ltWKeOVKl6mpX3910QIsTVBLYrK4SqL4KWcIyChDKrc9OxZu4AWIN4CsyPYPZLSKNxfiyUinns7nQhzEW-fzGXSToB/s570/Akkadian%20Head.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="570" data-original-width="300" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiZG7NMkDdNJZsQB0TBDhhSIx1z542ATm_btPT4xuqLwXDN1yHqt1zxvv2xHDbP2biLmi4T9K8jIIcS8raX-gBE3cVk2eeZZ7ltWKeOVKl6mpX3910QIsTVBLYrK4SqL4KWcIyChDKrc9OxZu4AWIN4CsyPYPZLSKNxfiyUinns7nQhzEW-fzGXSToB/w336-h640/Akkadian%20Head.jpg" width="336" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Famously called "Mask of Sargon"<br />but suspected to be Naram-Sin,<br />Sargon's grandson</td></tr></tbody></table><b><br /></b></span><span><a name='more'></a></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b>Finding Sargon the Man and the Myth</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Much of the details regarding Sargon the Great of the Akkadian empire came from <b><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2023/02/5-sources-on-sargon-great-of-akkad.html">various tablets and fragments</a></b> created centuries after the death of history's first empire builder. Thus, embellishments and exaggerations littered his biography. This obscured the real life of Sargon and created Sargon the legend.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b style="font-family: arial; font-size: x-large;"><br /></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;">Akkadian Moses?</span></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Sargon was born an Akkadian, a Semitic people that settled in modern day Iraq, different from the Sumerians that settled in the lower banks of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. </span><span style="font-family: arial;">Due to lack of contemporary records, Sargon's exact birth place, date, and name remains lost in history. Even his background remains a mystery due to differences in the sources and later records. Records that aimed to make Sargon a humble orphan otherwise a man of the people.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Sargon came from the words <i>Sarru ken</i> which meant "True King". This meant he only used the name after his rise to power while his initial name continues to be a mystery.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">For the circumstances of his birth, the Birth-Legend of Sargon stated that his mother served as a high priestess, his father he never knew, and his uncle lived in the highlands. He came to this world in the city of Azupiranu either unwanted circumstances or for other unknown context. His mother placed him in a basket and cast him down in the Euphrates River until a water-drawer named Aqqi took him in and raised him to be a gardener.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">According to another tablet, La'ibum fathered Sargon and once again came from humble origins. He later became a delivery boy to the palace of the disturbed ruler of Kish, Ur-Zababa. From then on he began his climb to power.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiXDleuFvwBQ3eqaxdU1I-lj-_CL09_LkSz_elC4gq1n6uiIGYyLHn3bPPzsQ_lQTNE6rYKmck4WbQkH4PsGLVSICHPY_o4FXwSrhnFfvuXqPiN0PhDCCtiL3lY8Bk9RC7WjidpgUolhi1HkYmUG9HZzJmPwpWYBxZCRBhVP8ZRluTkku-OTBgEc8WZ/s1200/Ishtar%20and%20Sargon.webp" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="655" data-original-width="1200" height="310" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiXDleuFvwBQ3eqaxdU1I-lj-_CL09_LkSz_elC4gq1n6uiIGYyLHn3bPPzsQ_lQTNE6rYKmck4WbQkH4PsGLVSICHPY_o4FXwSrhnFfvuXqPiN0PhDCCtiL3lY8Bk9RC7WjidpgUolhi1HkYmUG9HZzJmPwpWYBxZCRBhVP8ZRluTkku-OTBgEc8WZ/w566-h310/Ishtar%20and%20Sargon.webp" width="566" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Sargon visited by Ishtar</span></td></tr></tbody></table></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b>Rise to Power</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Mystery once again clouded Sargon's rise to power. Divine protection or inspiration, he usurped the throne of Kish and deposed its leader Ur-Zababa. He then thrusted to the front of Mesopotamian politics the Akkadian people.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">According to the same tablet that named Sargon's father La'ibum, the future Akkadian leader served as the cupbearer of the Ur-Zababa. But due to a disturbing dream that made King of Kish piss with blood and puss, he viewed his cupbearer as a threat and planned to kill him twice. The story ended, however, in a cliff-hanger due to missing fragments.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Regardless of the story, Sargon staged a coup that toppled down Ur-Zababa, establishing the Sargonic or Akkadian dynasty in Kish. From Kish, Sargon cemented his rule by starting a groundbreaking project establishing a new city - Agade or Akkade. The city that labelled Sargon's ethnic group the Akkadians.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b>Military Powerhouse</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b><br /></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Sargon surely proved himself as a capable military leader. His success laid in the introduction of new weapons and organization. He created alterations in the traditional Sumerian style of warfare which resulted to a powerful juggernaut. This allowed the Akkadian Empire to smash their enemies and rebels securing control over newly conquered lands and cities.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Sumerian military practices only allowed for seasonal campaigns and short-term conflicts. Sumerian armies composed of the small palace guards and conscripts drafted from the local population of farmers and craftsmen, hence the need to return to civilian life to harvest crops. The organization of these forces based on clans, districts, and cities. Their formations only worked in wide open plains. The Sumerians also supplemented their main armies with chariots as well as skirmishers.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><span><span><br /></span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><span><span>Sargon implemented changes in the organization and the tactics that gave the Akkadians edge against their opponents. He organized his troops based on formation creating units of phalanxes composed of 36 men each. He trained his soldiers to be highly flexible and mobile. Moreover, he and his successors widely used the bow and arrow to their advantage. He meant for his army to inflict physical and morale damage to their enemies before contact. Lastly, unlike the conscripted armies of the Sumerians, Sargon said to have established the world's first professional army made of 5,400 men. Men who lived by fighting and always ready and capable. The standing army allowed the Akkadians to establish order and security in captured cities for a long term.</span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><span><span><br /></span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><span><span>Thus, turning against the convention in warfare allowed Sargon to be a successful military leader. A Napoleon of the ancient world. He carved out and began a concept of imperialism.</span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><span><span><br /></span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><span><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjb3Q6XG7Z0g6oL82DpmaYvmbp9Q7AiM3leboMsgu_uBnOr03733HO71CE0zYx9dj3Qvw4XlcsvwKjYS_pQ23m3W5K-OatoBbuUSuDTGA8_u-zqdubnmg3dTxct__FJmbsinsQv5_loRvYNv9lp_24EF21H8fEvSSy8qILKubq1OZ1ZdbBIPx6-_yY9/s872/Battle%20between%20Sumerians%20and%20Semites%20led%20by%20Sargon.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="872" data-original-width="736" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjb3Q6XG7Z0g6oL82DpmaYvmbp9Q7AiM3leboMsgu_uBnOr03733HO71CE0zYx9dj3Qvw4XlcsvwKjYS_pQ23m3W5K-OatoBbuUSuDTGA8_u-zqdubnmg3dTxct__FJmbsinsQv5_loRvYNv9lp_24EF21H8fEvSSy8qILKubq1OZ1ZdbBIPx6-_yY9/w541-h640/Battle%20between%20Sumerians%20and%20Semites%20led%20by%20Sargon.jpg" width="541" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Sumerians (left) battling the Akkadians</td></tr></tbody></table><span><br /></span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b>Sargon the Conqueror</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">From Kish and Agade, Sargon then marched to expand his dominion breaking boundaries to setup history's earliest known Empire.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Because of the lack of contemporary and complete sources, the dates of the campaigns remains unknown. Surely, Sargon marched against the Sumerian's regional power - Uruk and its leader Lugal-zage-si. He successfully captured him along with his 50 deputies and returned them to Agade in chains. He then marched to add to his fold the various Sumerian city states of Lagash, Ur, and Umma until his forces reached the Persian Gulf where he said to have washed his sword marking the end of his southern expansion. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">He also then marched north until he reach the Mediterranean Sea or what the ancients called the Upper Sea. He touched the Taurus Mountains of Anatolia and the cedar forests of Lebanon. He also subjugated the people of Mari and the Elamites of the Zagros Mountains.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Besides conquest, Sargon also fostered trade with various Anatolian kingdoms and cities beyond the Persian Gulf. Dilmun in modern-day Bahrain, Magan in present-day Oman, and even Meluhha, suspected to be located in the Indus Valley, all had ships docked in Akkadian ports for trade. Despite the distance, Sargon demonstrated his might when group of merchants begged for his assistance against the Anatolian Kingdom of Purushanda ruled by Nur-Daggal.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">With the absence of roads and despite the operation of an ancient postal service, however, rebellion unsurprisingly plagued the Empire. The once independent city-states looked to regain their past self-rule and resisted Akkadian rule.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b>Imperial Policy</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">As the Akkadian Empire grew, Sargon enacted policies to consolidate his rule over his dominion. He weakened the city-states by removing their traditional leaders and defenses. Moreover, he sought to unite the Empire with standardization. These measures he hoped to prevent rebellions.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">After a conquest of a city-state, Sargon cemented his rule by subduing the capacity of the occupied area to rebel. Either figuratively or not, he ordered the demolition of defensive walls of conquered cities. He deposed local rulers in most occasions and replaced them with Akkadian governors. Even Sargon's children received assignments, such as Enheduanna who became the priestess of the temple of Nanna in the Sumerian city of Ur. For local rulers who remained, their relatives went to Agade either a part of tribute missions or as hostages.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Beyond hindering defensive capabilities, Sargon aimed as well to unify the empire through language. Akkadian became the official language of administration. He also standardized weights and measures making trade an attractive and lucrative reason for conquered city states to behave and remain loyal.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Despite such efforts, the inevitable rebellions occurred. The spirit of independence and self-rule that lived for centuries among the conquered city-state remained. Rebellions marred the latter years of Sargon's rule and continued to be challenged for his successors.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b>Death and Aftermath</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Sargon "the Great" of Akkad, according to the Sumerian King List, ruled for 56 years. Estimates dated his passing around 2,279 BCE leaving his son Rimush as the new King of the Akkadian Empire. Sargon's dynasty ruled until 2,154 BCE.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Centuries after his rule, Assyrian Kings looked up to him as a role model for better or for worst. </span><span style="font-family: arial;">2 Assyrian Kings even adopted his name. </span><span style="font-family: arial;">Much of Sargon's tactics in the subjugation of conquered lands <a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2015/02/cruelty-instrument-of-assyrian-control.html"><b>magnified during the Assyrians and Neo-Assyrian Empires</b></a>. They also contributed much to the embellishments that hindered the identifying the real Akkadian founder.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b>Summing Up</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Sargon the Great created a legend. First military dictator and first empire builder became some of Sargon's great acclamations. If truly an orphan, he may also be history's first rag to riches story. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Sargon the Great pushed the boundaries and conventions. His military reforms created a mobile and professional army that Napoleon would have admired. Beyond the Sumerian traditions, he also braved into expanding his territory like no other previous rulers.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Sargon the Great embodied innovation and determination creating a myth that even after centuries many admired and even idolized. </span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b>Bibliography:</b></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><p><b>Books:</b></p><p>Erskine, Andrew (ed.). <i>A Companion to Ancient History</i>. Chichester, West Sussex: Blackwell Publishing, 2009.</p><p>Westenholz, Joan Goodnick. <i>Legends of the Kings of Akkade</i>. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 1997. </p></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b>Websites:</b></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b><br /></b></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><span style="color: black; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">"Sargon and Ur-Zababa." </span><span style="color: black; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><i>ETCSL Translation</i></span><span style="color: black; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. Accessed on December 18, 2022. URL: </span><a href="https://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/etcsl.cgi?text=t.2.1.4" style="background: none rgb(248, 249, 250); border: 0px; display: inline; font-family: arial, sans-serif; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">https://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/etcsl.cgi?text=t.2.1.4</a><span face="arial, sans-serif" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202124;">.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b><br /></b></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><span style="color: black; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">“Sumerian King List.” </span><span style="color: black; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><i>Ashmolean Museum Oxford</i></span><span style="color: black; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. Accessed on December 18, 2022. URL: </span><a href="https://www.ashmolean.org/sumerian-king-list" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">https://www.ashmolean.org/sumerian-king-list</span></a> </span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">“The Birth-Legend of Sargon.” </span><i style="white-space: pre-wrap;">ETANA.org</i><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">. Accessed on December 23, 2022. URL: <a href="http://etana.org/node/578">http://etana.org/node/578</a></span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Browne, O'Brien. "The Composite Bow: The Medieval Precursor to the Riffle." <i>Warfare History Network</i>. Accessed on December 26, 2022. URL: <a href="https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/the-composite-bow-the-medieval-precursor-to-the-rifle/">https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/the-composite-bow-the-medieval-precursor-to-the-rifle/</a></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Dalley, Stephanie. "Sargon." <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>. Accessed on December 26, 2022. URL: <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sargon">https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sargon</a></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Geeslin, Brian. "Sargon the Great and the World's First Professional Army." <i>Warfare History Network</i>. Accessed on December 26, 2022. URL: <a href="https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/professional-soldiers-king-sargon-of-akkads-expanding-empire/">https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/professional-soldiers-king-sargon-of-akkads-expanding-empire/</a> </span></div>Bob Corcuerahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14748111488274035197noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3147004568822447450.post-5758169004871691012023-02-01T00:00:00.008+08:002023-02-01T00:00:00.200+08:005 Sources on Sargon the Great of Akkad<span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">Sargon the Great, one history earliest recorded Empire-builder, a </span><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">Rockstar of the ancient world, had a mysterious and legendary life. Much of the mysticism of his biography stemmed from the lack of complete sources on his exploits and below are just some of the primary sources pertaining to this early conqueror.</span></div><div style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEimWCiBnuivGyuSddx0ZT5NabIjBgtjQQkCd3QmEk7Y5VmnvSOkwSfu6CEtbgMQLEgPWS-YcRDdqopFbVSpj0qkJEtymDvBnjf_tbo3APAk-2eMBIVSP-wFGOchkIQxXo8HPhlfdTAZF4Lq6B2DEaA7UzpEKkJJTeT2qjDEqlAwrqntFjCVpBk8gcTX/s1200/Ishtar%20and%20Sargon.webp" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="655" data-original-width="1200" height="318" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEimWCiBnuivGyuSddx0ZT5NabIjBgtjQQkCd3QmEk7Y5VmnvSOkwSfu6CEtbgMQLEgPWS-YcRDdqopFbVSpj0qkJEtymDvBnjf_tbo3APAk-2eMBIVSP-wFGOchkIQxXo8HPhlfdTAZF4Lq6B2DEaA7UzpEKkJJTeT2qjDEqlAwrqntFjCVpBk8gcTX/w581-h318/Ishtar%20and%20Sargon.webp" width="581" /></a></div><br /><span><a name='more'></a></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-weight: 700; white-space: pre-wrap;">1. Sumerian King List</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Contained in the 4-sided prism called the Weld-Blundell Prism with each slides containing 2 columns of ancient cuneiform, the Sumerian King List starts with a series of Kings that descended from heaven ruling for thousands of years until a cataclysmic flood and continuing with the enumeration. The list then passed by the Akkadian Kings starting with Sargon:</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"></span></p><blockquote><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">“Then Uruk was defeated and the kingship was taken to Agade. </span><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">In Agade, Sargon, whose father was a gardener, the cupbearer of Ur-Zababa, became king, the king of Agade, who built Agade; he ruled for 56 years.”</span></p></blockquote><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">It continued until the reign of Akkadian King Sar-kali-sarri who ruled from 2,218 - 2,193 BCE.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">2. The Birth-Legend of Sargon (Autobiography of Sargon of Akkade)</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh2LzJ04Iw70eg04q0QDE5C92k1fHdsrNWNL6-0a7Ur4MbbibX53bcbCOgfMQsoFTwyiWKY9gMDjc26PvUc6g6-BQDHtvK0sj5vDZs8bs11ETZ4FXoIm7vqcKMxziwnexj0gFgZ8scWHzpU-k8SAHtkLEC7TtyScPL5uMHCN797kP_x4J9-o2whZ-6z/s1960/Artist%E2%80%99s%20impression%20of%20Assyrian%20palaces%20from%20The%20Monuments%20of%20Nineveh.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1153" data-original-width="1960" height="349" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh2LzJ04Iw70eg04q0QDE5C92k1fHdsrNWNL6-0a7Ur4MbbibX53bcbCOgfMQsoFTwyiWKY9gMDjc26PvUc6g6-BQDHtvK0sj5vDZs8bs11ETZ4FXoIm7vqcKMxziwnexj0gFgZ8scWHzpU-k8SAHtkLEC7TtyScPL5uMHCN797kP_x4J9-o2whZ-6z/w593-h349/Artist%E2%80%99s%20impression%20of%20Assyrian%20palaces%20from%20The%20Monuments%20of%20Nineveh.jpg" width="593" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Artist’s impression of Assyrian palaces from The Monuments of Nineveh</td></tr></tbody></table><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"><div style="text-align: justify;">The legend came as part of the tablets found in Kouyunjik, Iraq, the site of ancient Ninveh and its famous “library” during excavations in the mid-19th century. Considered as an autobiography for its use of first person. As if Sargon himself gave readers basic details of his life and states:</div></span></div><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"></span></p><blockquote><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">“Sargon, the mighty king, King of Akkade, am I</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">My mother as was a high priestess, my father I knew not.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">My father’s family lived in the highlands,</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">My city is Azupiranu, which lies on the bank of the Euphrates.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">My mother the high priestess conceived me, bore me in secret,</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In a reed basket she placed me, sealed my lid with bitumen.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">She cast me down into the river from which I could not ascend.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The river bore me, it brought me to Aqqi the water-drawer.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Aqqi the water-drawer, when lowering his bucket, did lift me up.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Aqqi the water-drawer did set me to his gardening.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">While I was still a gardner, Ishtar did grow fond of me,</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">And so for (...) years I did reign as king.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The black-headed people (Sumerians), I did rule and govern.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">With copper pickaxes, I cut my way through the most difficult mountains.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">I did ascend all the high mountains,</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">I did traverse all the foothills,</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The sealands, I did sail around three times.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Dilmun did submit to me</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The Great Wall of Heaven and Earth, i did ascend"</span></p></blockquote><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-weight: 700; white-space: pre-wrap;">3. Sargon and Ur-Zababa</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Tablets tells the relationship between Sargon and Ur-Zababa, King of Kish. It stated that because of a frightening dream, Ur-Zababa plotted the death of his cupbearer Sargon. Sargon also appeared to be favored and protected by the gods, especially by Innanu (Ishtar). Moreover, the tablets also provided a background on Sargon to the extent of giving his father’s name - La’ibum.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"></span></p><blockquote>“Then Sargon -- his city was the city of ……, his father was La’ibum, his mother …… -- Sargon …… with a happy heart. Since he was born ……”</blockquote><p></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">Sargon initially served as delivery boy before Ur-Zababa turned him into his cupbearer. However, 5 or 10 days later:</span></div><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"></span></p><blockquote> “King Ur-Zababa …… and became frightened in his residence. Like a lion he urinated, sprinkling his legs, and the urine contained blood and pus. He was troubled, he was disturbed like a fish living in brackish water.”</blockquote><p></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">Ur-Zababa then learned of Sargon having dreams and had his cupbearer tell his nightly visions:</span></div><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"></span></p><blockquote>“My king, this is my dream, which I will tell you about: There was a young woman who was as high as the heavens and as broad as the earth. She was firmly set as the base of a wall. For me, she drowned you in a great river, a river of blood."</blockquote><p></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">After knowing Sargon’s dreams, Ur-Zababa then plotted the assassination of his cupbearer. First ordering Sargon to deliver a bronze mirror to Belis-tikal, the Chief Smith, who received orders to assassinate the incoming cupbearer. However, Inana intervened to save Sargon:</span></div><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"></span></p><blockquote>“...holy Inana turned around toward him and blocked his way, (saying:) ‘The E-sikil is a holy house! No one polluted with blood should enter it!’”</blockquote><p></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">After failing in the first attempt, Ur-Zababa then made another attempt, this time having the great leader of Uruk Lugalzagesi do the deed.</span></div><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"></span></p><blockquote>“King Ur-Zababa despatched Sargon, the creature of the gods, to Lugal-zage-si in Unug with a message written on clay, which was about murdering Sargon.”</blockquote><p></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">Unfortunately, the inscription had missing parts that made the story a cliff-hanger. Did Innanu once again stopped Sargon from coming to Lugal-zagesi? Did Ligal-zagesi instead helped Sargon to deposed Ur-Zababa? No one knows.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">4. Nippur Inscription</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh7L7Jg9djjx-_jVJsGk10OdQBZYUw57_urSGG-7ZH-lg8Wr_jlQfcfGkm-4kku8NO8ZK75zJkpw2gH3ady3e6P8Ca8DdeUY64DynM7DTvlX5jNLoCRA6sA5AiybjBmNizctQPjlw63E5ZkIuZj7kyJMsHu6oIp1iq7BCyZos0gW8tzzlf5B-YC25i3/s612/Excavations%20in%20Nippur.png" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="438" data-original-width="612" height="426" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh7L7Jg9djjx-_jVJsGk10OdQBZYUw57_urSGG-7ZH-lg8Wr_jlQfcfGkm-4kku8NO8ZK75zJkpw2gH3ady3e6P8Ca8DdeUY64DynM7DTvlX5jNLoCRA6sA5AiybjBmNizctQPjlw63E5ZkIuZj7kyJMsHu6oIp1iq7BCyZos0gW8tzzlf5B-YC25i3/w595-h426/Excavations%20in%20Nippur.png" width="595" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A photograph reproduced by permission<br />from Mr. Clarence Fisher's "Excavations of Nippur"<br /></td></tr></tbody></table></div><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Initially found in 1894 in Nippur and its partial content published in 1914 and additions unveiled in 1923. It detailed the extent of the conquest of Sargon. In addition, it also revealed the trade contacts of the Akkadian Empire.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"></span></p><blockquote>“Sargon, king of Akkad, challenged (the man of) E-Nin-kimara and destroyed its walls and destroyed its land from Lagash to the sea. He washed his weapons in the sea. He challenged Umma in a battle [and he defeated the city and destroyed its walls].</blockquote><p></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"></span></p><blockquote>To Sargon, king of lands, Enlil gave no rival; Enlil gave him the Upper Sea and the Lower Sea. From the Lower Sea, citizens of Akkad held the government. Mari and Elam were subjects to Sargon, king of lands. Sargon, king of lands, restored Kish and made (its fugitive inhabitants re)occupy the city.”</blockquote><p></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-weight: 700; white-space: pre-wrap;">5. “King of Battle”</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">A story of Sargon’s military intervention in a dispute between Akkadian merchants and Nur-Daggal of the Kingdom of Purushanda. The narrative came from various fragments discovered from numerous ancient sites, including Amarna in Egypt, Ashur and Niniveh from Neo-Assyria, and even from Hattusa of the Hittite Empire.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"></span></p><blockquote><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">“The Hero of Ishtar, to the guide of Agade, seeker of battles, the king in the midst of the palace.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">To his warriors he is speaking, Sargon girds his loins…speaking to his warriors he declares ‘My warriors! With Hanish, I desire war. They have subjugated…’</span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">…, the champion of Sargon opens his mouth, he speaks, saying to the lord of thrones, ‘As to the road, O my lord, that you wish to travel, It is a month-long, it is dangerous, as to traveling, it is arduous…sit down on a chair? Will we rest even for a moment? When our arms have no more strength, and our knees have become exhausted from walking the trails?’</span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">At that time he opens his mouth and speaks, the spokesman of the merchants declares:</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">‘By your god, Zababa, who travels the roads, who proceeds on the way, who spies out the regions…for the lord of thrones, from the rising of the sun to the setting of the sun, t</span><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">he hearts of the merchants are vomiting, spattered with bile, disgorging upon the earth, what can Kish take from the midst of Akkade? We swore loyalty by the name Sargon, king of the universe, so we went down and now we are facing violence and we are not particularly heroic.</span><span style="text-align: left;"> </span></p></blockquote><blockquote><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The necessities of the road, O King, impose, that which we shall pay, O King, but whoever will stand in his battle, the King will pay. Let the warriors of Sargon gold. Let the steers give way silver. How shall we transact our business while treachery is being carried out in the place where your god Zababa rests?’</span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The merchants were assembled, they entered the palace. After the merchants entered, t</span><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">hey did not confront the warriors. Sargon opens his mouth, he speaks, ‘The King of Battle declares, ‘the fabled Purushanda, I would see its bravery, What is its direction? Which is its mountain?...’</span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Nur-Daggal, opening his mouth and speaking to his warriors, declares, ‘Up to now, Sargon has not come against us. May the bank, the flood or high ground prevent him! Also, the mighty mountain! May the reed thicket constitute forest, copse, and… becoming completely interlocked like knots!’</span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">His warriors answer him, to Nur-Daggal they declare, ‘Of which kings, later or earlier, what king came and saw our lands? </span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Nur-Daggal had not yet finished these words in his mouth, when Sargon undermined his city, broadened the Gate of Princes,... he cast it down; in the highest part of its wall he made a breach; he smote all of his wine-intoxicated men. Sargon placed his throne before the gate. Sargon opens his mouth, speaking to his warriors, he declares, ‘Come on! Nur-Daggal, favorite of Enlil, let him stir himself! Let him humble himself! Let me behold it!</span><span style="text-align: left;"> </span></p></blockquote><blockquote><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">He was crowned with a tiara of gemstone on his head, a footstool of lapis lazuli at his foot. Together with 55 deputies. The sukkallu (vizier) sat before him, who, just like him, is seated on a golden throne but the king is seated like a god.</span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Who is exalted like the King? They made Nur-Daggal sit before Sargon. Sargon opens his mouth speaking to Nur-Daggal, he declares: ‘Come on! Nur-Daggal, favorite of Enlil, how could you say, up to now Sargon has not come to us…</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Nur-Daggal opens his mouth, he speaks to Sargon. ‘Who can tell who have revealed the way to you, O my Lord, or have caused the troops to be conveyed for you - Its is your god, Zababa, the hero of the trans-Euphrates region! What country among countries can compare with Akkade?’”</span></p></blockquote><p>Above works are just some of the works that help in shedding a light on the life of Sargon the Great. </p><p><b>Bibliography:</b></p><p><b>Books:</b></p><p>Erskine, Andrew (ed.). <i>A Companion to Ancient History</i>. Chichester, West Sussex: Blackwell Publishing, 2009.</p><p>Westenholz, Joan Goodnick. <i>Legends of the Kings of Akkade</i>. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 1997. </p><p><b>Websites:</b></p><p><span id="docs-internal-guid-27ca3319-7fff-2185-23e8-9b5021d97ee5"></span></p><div style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: left;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">"Sargon and Ur-Zababa." </span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><i>ETCSL Translation</i></span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. Accessed on December 18, 2022. URL: </span><a href="https://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/etcsl.cgi?text=t.2.1.4" style="background: none rgb(248, 249, 250); border: 0px; display: inline; font-family: arial, sans-serif; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">https://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/etcsl.cgi?text=t.2.1.4</a><span face="arial, sans-serif" style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202124;">.</span></div><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">“Sumerian King List.” </span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><i>Ashmolean Museum Oxford</i></span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. Accessed on December 18, 2022. URL: </span><a href="https://www.ashmolean.org/sumerian-king-list" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #1155cc; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">https://www.ashmolean.org/sumerian-king-list</span></a> </p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><br /></p><div style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: left;"><span id="docs-internal-guid-d1f9e224-7fff-8ee6-3a02-090a9250424f"><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">“The Birth-Legend of Sargon.” <i>ETANA.org</i>. Accessed on December 23, 2022. URL: http://etana.org/node/578 </span></span></div></span>Bob Corcuerahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14748111488274035197noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3147004568822447450.post-76695087505662434232021-04-18T00:01:00.095+08:002021-04-18T00:01:00.223+08:00The Rise and Fall of the Isaurian Dynasty<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><i><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgfP0pUMsKeGlLywyT5HOPjW6b9WS_LWdaweE2FqyuChQz0h6TGdyNI_y2IU8AphxqwFUgibRYwBVSNJCX0uyOk-A5DXRlDWUCkzC6EGnGjQBVXTuAFnKersPtSWX_1ZR7KCKVlLiUpEEw/s600/Leo+IV.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="599" data-original-width="600" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgfP0pUMsKeGlLywyT5HOPjW6b9WS_LWdaweE2FqyuChQz0h6TGdyNI_y2IU8AphxqwFUgibRYwBVSNJCX0uyOk-A5DXRlDWUCkzC6EGnGjQBVXTuAFnKersPtSWX_1ZR7KCKVlLiUpEEw/s320/Leo+IV.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>A dynasty that plunged the Byzantine Empire into a sectarian division between those who venerated icons in their worship and those who saw it as idolatry. The Isaurian Dynasty (717 - 802) confronted the continuous threat of Muslim as well as Bulgar expansion and the emergence of the Frankish Empire. It met an ending under a woman Basileus.<span><a name='more'></a></span><span><br /></span></i></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Founding<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">The year 695 marked the start of the so-called Twenty Year’s Anarchy. The
Heraclian Dynasty fell followed by 6 successions of Emperors in 22 years. Alongside
political instability, plague, Muslim raids, and foreign intervention stalked
the lands. In this mess, <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2021/04/founders-who-is-emperor-leo-iii-isaurian.html">Leo III</a></b> and
the Isaurian Dynasty rise to power.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Between 714 and 715, Emperor Anastasios faced a rebellion from the
Opsician Theme. The rebellious troops initially received orders to go to the Levant to burn highly-priced cedarwood and Byzantine equipment before it falls
to the Muslims. The Opsician forces, however, rebelled and proclaimed an
obscure tax collector named Theodosius as Emperor. Eventually, through bribery,
Theodosius’ faction won and Anastasios accepted the vow of a monk in
Thessalonike. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Leo, the founders of the Isaurian Dynasty, at this time served as the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Strategos</i> of the Anatolic Theme, the
largest province in the Empire. He served Anastasios in war, but the new Theodosius
regime kept him in his place. Leo, understanding his potential for victory,
cast his lot for the throne. His receipt of support from Artabasdos, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Strategos</i> of the neighboring Armeniac
Theme, the second largest province in the Empire, further encouraged him. The
marriage of Artabasdos to Leo’s daughter Anna cemented the alliance.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">On the other hand, the Byzantine Empire once again faced a Muslim
invasion led by the renowned General Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik. One of Maslama’s
subordinates named Suleiman marched into Anatolic Theme’s capital, Amorium.
They sought Leo’s support and hoped for the Strategos to take Constantinople on
their behalf and so they wrote:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"></span></p><blockquote><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">“We know the Roman Empire is rightfully yours. Come to us; let us
discuss peace terms.”</span></blockquote><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><o:p></o:p></span><p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Thus, the Muslims first recognized him as Emperor before the people of
his own capital did so. While the Muslim army remained at bay, Leo moved to
take Constantinople. On his way to the capital, he managed to capture Theodosius’
son, his retinue, and important government officials. Leo then sent a message
through the Patriarch Germanus his terms: the Empire for his Theodosius’ son.
Theodosius, a coerced Emperor, accepted the terms and went into exile peacefully
as a monk. Leo took the throne on March 25, 717.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">The Basileus attended to the pressing matter – the Muslim siege of Constantinople.
As Leo set his court and broke his alliance with the Muslims. An Umayyad force,
thus, descended and besieged the capital. Fortunately, with desertion ripe in the
Umayyad Army and assistance from Khan Tervel and the Bulgars, Constantinople
survived. Leo then began to properly consolidate his power. Through series of
marriages, he secured the throne, and through a victory in the Battle of
Akroinos in 740, he pushed back the borders of the Umayyad Caliphate back into
the Levant.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">With military success, he tackled the source of political instability. Large
Themes fed tremendous resources to ambitious Strategoi who sought to be
Emperors. Therefore, he divided the largest Themes to prevent Strategoi from attempting to rebel. As his long reign exemplified, this policy seemed to work
and along with the tired population, stability returned to the Empire.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Iconoclasm<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;">Natural disasters and military misadventures convinced Leo to
begin a controversy that defined his dynasty - Iconoclasm. Leo showed his
crusader persona in 722 when he ordered the forced baptism of Jews and other heretical Christian sects. Either through his knowledge of Islamic
contact in Isauria (Northern Syria) or teachings of Bishops, in 726 he voiced
his disgust over icons. Misfortunes in the battlefield followed by a huge
volcanic eruption that clouded the sky with ash drove Emperor Leo into viewing
icons as the source of God’s displeasure. In 730, he declared Iconoclasm as the
pillar of his regime and of the Empire. Destruction of icons and persecution of
Iconophiles or Iconoclodes (supporters of veneration of icons) became the order
of the day. Patriarch Germanus opposed the policy and paid with his position
for it.</span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: arial;"><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhBscbp5ug0jScTH4SRBE4fUe143EkWsn8kEeIoogU1PPjAKKgsCKWxwDq7pnwlUzgg4zsbzcG041YHO9EWcXxFwWIu6mj2jVD9imvkCzWfmLFTyxNLPOW6YQX4Y_x8PTrV1LTwVn7x6WE/s765/Byzantine+Iconoclasm%252C+Chludov+Psalter%252C+9th+century.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="636" data-original-width="765" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhBscbp5ug0jScTH4SRBE4fUe143EkWsn8kEeIoogU1PPjAKKgsCKWxwDq7pnwlUzgg4zsbzcG041YHO9EWcXxFwWIu6mj2jVD9imvkCzWfmLFTyxNLPOW6YQX4Y_x8PTrV1LTwVn7x6WE/s320/Byzantine+Iconoclasm%252C+Chludov+Psalter%252C+9th+century.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Byzantine Iconoclasm, Chludov Psalter, 9th century</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /> <span style="font-size: large;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">In Byzantine-controlled Italy, Pope Gregory III condemned Leo III’s
Iconoclast policy and tensions soared. Leo severed ties of the Bishop of Rome
with the Churches in Byzantine-held Italy transferring jurisdiction to the
Patriarch of Constantinople. The rift led Rome to rely less on Constantinople
and shifted towards the rising power of the Frankish Empire. Many Italians also
opposed Iconoclasm causing mass dissatisfaction. The policy resulted in
revolts, but the army quickly suppressed. Leo’s Iconoclasm polarized the population and
led to historic events with tremendous political and religious repercussions.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Maintaining Power<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">In 741, Leo III the Isaurian passed away. From Leo’s successors, the
Isaurian Dynasty endured thanks to astute diplomacy and military success.
Iconoclasm also prevailed for few decades becoming a main characteristic of the
dynasty. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Constantine V succeeded his father as Emperor of the Eastern Roman
Empire. Under his rule, the Byzantines continued to successfully engage the
Arabs and the Bulgars retaking some lands lost during the previous century. He
also cemented an alliance with the Khazars with his marriage to the Tzitzak
(baptized as Irene). Nevertheless, his reign saw the Empire’s diminishing
control over Italy. Military concentration towards the Arabs and the Bulgars neglected
the defense of Byzantine interest in Italy. This allowed the Lombards to
capture Ravenna striking fear to the Papacy. Rome, thus, sought another
protector and found one in form of Pepin the Short of Franks. Isaurian Emperors
made military advances near Constantinople at the cost of diminishing control
over domains overseas. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">In addition to receding Byzantine military presence in Italy, rift with
the Papacy furthered with the continuing policy of Iconoclasm. With military
successes, Constantine intensified the persecution of Iconophiles. In 754, his
convening of the Council of Hieria affirmed the state policy against Icons.
Persecution of monks, closure of monasteries, destruction of exquisite images,
and confiscation of monastic lands followed with the last becoming a source of
income to finance military operations. With his passing on September 14, 775,
he left the task of maintaining the Isaurian Dynasty to his son Leo IV the
Khazar. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Subtlety from his father and grandfather’s
policies marked Leo IV's reign. He continued military campaigns against Arabs between 777 and 780.
The western border reeled from constant fighting as the Bulgars began a civil
war in which Leo IV supported Telerig by providing him a safe haven and a wife, a
cousin of Empress Irene. In religious matters, Leo moderately pursued Iconoclasm.
But after discovering an icon, according to a story, beneath his wife Irene’s
pillow, he went on a rampage against Iconophiles in 780. Before he went all
out, though, he passed away leaving the throne to his minor son Constantine VI.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Mother vs. Son<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">A 6-year old Constantine VI, like his grandfather Constantine V, also
became co-emperor with his father in 776. He ascended to the throne in 781 at
only 11 years old. Being a minor, a regency headed by her ambitious and
ruthless mother <a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2021/04/empress-irene-woman-that-built-holy.html"><b>Irene</b></a> handled state affairs in his stead. Moreover, a teenage
ruler also opened a challenge to his rule coming from his uncle Nicephorus and
his 4 uncles. Irene, however, successfully foiled the plot and have them
banished to convents.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: arial;"><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhk-M4z-iFxGp3-FHUhfU0DyxTf20ItD-3LdfXrYvr0VSu5YhweXkzMExFxbIp1LQCieDs7S4g9Uyna5xAp4HjPnpp5jfC5zwSfmIUxOxAmdfng8nVvn9zfNbeRSQAhXx2AkgYeWo_G-RU/s1024/Woodcut+Illustration+of+Empress+Irene+%2528in+the+left%2529+and+Charlemagne+%2528in+the+right%2529.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="966" data-original-width="1024" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhk-M4z-iFxGp3-FHUhfU0DyxTf20ItD-3LdfXrYvr0VSu5YhweXkzMExFxbIp1LQCieDs7S4g9Uyna5xAp4HjPnpp5jfC5zwSfmIUxOxAmdfng8nVvn9zfNbeRSQAhXx2AkgYeWo_G-RU/s320/Woodcut+Illustration+of+Empress+Irene+%2528in+the+left%2529+and+Charlemagne+%2528in+the+right%2529.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Woodcut Illustration of Empress Irene (in the left) <br />and Charlemagne (in the right)</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /> <span style="font-size: large;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Irene, as regent and an Iconophile, moved to reverse the policies of
Iconoclasm in 786. Iconoclast elements in the military, however, delayed her
goal and Irene stamped out these units by sending them east, far away from the
capital. In 787, she convened the Council of Nicaea welcoming delegates from
all Christendom including from the Pope. Unsurprisingly, the Council declared
in favor of Icons. The Council helped in mending the ties between
Constantinople and Rome for a time.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">In 791, Constantine VI, already reaching adulthood, sanctioned a coup
against her mother which successfully started his direct rule. However,
battlefield defeats resulted in the return of his exiled mother who he also
appointed as co-ruler. In 794, a scandalous divorce fanned opposition against Constantine.
Empress Irene then unleashed her vengeance using the latest controversy to
rally support for her coup against his own son in 797. She cruelly had his son
blinded in such a way that he succumbed to death shortly after. Irene then
ruled as Basileus – the first female Emperor in Roman history.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;">Irene’s reign met a threat of Muslim resurgence, competition for
influence in the west, and consolidation of her power at home. The Abbasid
Caliphate under Harun Al-Rashid began once again to threaten the Anatolian
territories of the Eastern Roman Empire. In the west, The Frankish Empire under
</span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2021/04/how-great-was-charlemagne.html"><span style="font-size: large;">Charlemagne</span></a></b><span style="font-size: large;"> formed a strong alliance
with </span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2021/04/who-was-pope-leo-iii.html"><span style="font-size: large;">Pope Leo III</span></a></b><span style="font-size: large;">. Finally, as a female Empress who took power through a coup placed her in a precarious
situation. Her reign thus revolved around facing these crises.</span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: arial;"><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="font-size: x-large; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgjS3b-qgZLpQS4SEgthUMYHulJn8HGhVTTfIp5g_KNpX-ey3xBnnsJ3CQu_DgWR_Fu1-bTuYS-fUe78_P1Uw_Y0mQbrvryHxkREzTeladJgYF93Tv5fII9tJSaXzBCZxyZ0Xkm5mDnruk/s424/Leo+III+Crowing+Charlemagne%252C+by+Friedrich+Kaulbach%252C+1861.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="424" data-original-width="330" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgjS3b-qgZLpQS4SEgthUMYHulJn8HGhVTTfIp5g_KNpX-ey3xBnnsJ3CQu_DgWR_Fu1-bTuYS-fUe78_P1Uw_Y0mQbrvryHxkREzTeladJgYF93Tv5fII9tJSaXzBCZxyZ0Xkm5mDnruk/w311-h400/Leo+III+Crowing+Charlemagne%252C+by+Friedrich+Kaulbach%252C+1861.png" width="311" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Leo III Crowing Charlemagne, by Friedrich Kaulbach, 1861</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /> <span style="font-size: large;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">With regards to the Abbasid Caliphate, Irene chose to bribe Harun
al-Rashid from retreating. Agreeing to pay tribute and providing supplies and
guide, the Muslim armies halted their advance and left Byzantine territories.
Though seen as a sign of weakness, it provided a sign of relief for the Empire.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Back in the west, Irene’s gender provided the pretext for Leo III to
assume the position of Roman Emperor vacant as a woman cannot hold the title.
In 800, Leo gave Charlemagne as a Christmas gift the title of Roman Emperor
signaling a split between Rome and Constantinople. Despite this, Charlemagne
wanted to foster good relations with Irene to the point he offered marriage – a
tempting offer that might lead to the revival of Rome’s Northern Mediterranean
Empire. Many in Constantinople, however, opposed the union.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Finally, Irene looked to the people to consolidate her grip on power.
She lowered or abolished some taxes. She also fostered trade by lowering
customs duties. Her tax policies made her popular with the people but
horrified her finance minister Nicephorus. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Downfall and the End of the
Dynasty<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">In 802, finance minister Nicephorus staged a coup that ended with
the overthrow of Irene’s regime. Several factors led to the coup. Irene’s
downfall marked the end of the Isaurian Dynasty.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Irene, since in the time of the regency, already made a lot of enemies.
He relied on eunuchs to fill civil as well as military positions. Her
Iconophile leanings made him unpopular to the military who mostly Iconoclast.
After her ascension as Basileus, she fostered factionalism allowing the
nobility to compete for her favor hoping that upon her passing their families
would take over the country. This atmosphere of competition caused a stir of
opposition when Charlemagne proposed marriage. These factions would lose their
chance to elevate themselves to a higher position with Charlemagne’s great
might. Lastly, Irene’s populist policies horrified many for its cost in finance
of the Empire. Hence, rallying support from disgruntled nobles, generals, and
officials, Nicephorus successfully overthrew Irene.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Irene, already old and fearing the same fate as her son, resigned to
her downfall. She went into exile to a monastery in Lesbos where she passed
away in 803. Her downfall ended the less than a century rule but profoundly
influential Isaurian Dynasty.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Summing Up<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">The Isaurian Dynasty defended the borders of the Empire against the
Bulgars and Muslims, but lost the Byzantine sphere of influence in the west and
divided the Empire with Iconoclasm. Isaurian Emperors managed to keep the
Bulgars at bay and to retake some territories lost to the Umayyads. However,
with their forces heavily engaged near home, they neglected Italy. It changed the
Papacy’s reliance on Constantinople to the Frankish Kings. This neglect along
with Iconoclasm and Irene’s rise to power contributed to the rise of the Holy
Roman Empire. Iconoclasm wounded the Empire. Despite Irene’s victory in Nicaea,
it returned during the mid-9th century that divided opinions and created
further rifts with the Pope in Rome. The Isaurian Dynasty protected the
Empire’s borders, but it created rifts that divided religion, politics, and the
course of history.</span><o:p></o:p></p><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b>See also:<br /></b></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2021/04/founders-who-is-emperor-leo-iii-isaurian.html">Leo III the Isaurian</a></span></div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><i></i></span></div>Bob Corcuerahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14748111488274035197noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3147004568822447450.post-33631367124722026692021-04-15T00:01:00.002+08:002021-04-15T20:03:31.981+08:00Founders: Who is Emperor Leo III the Isaurian?<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgQGx97pnW7l8XtFqdYAH7vHf4fZUGUTHULLDYjg3XcqheohGrD1spFYo55qhonwXKp3RDu9yPcNmhjuYxgxS3Z-eyrQcc3pah8F6cPgTmahIdlN1DoHki_Ww5yCt8w8T9yaq2uPZlin44/s765/Byzantine+Iconoclasm%252C+Chludov+Psalter%252C+9th+century.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="636" data-original-width="765" height="333" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgQGx97pnW7l8XtFqdYAH7vHf4fZUGUTHULLDYjg3XcqheohGrD1spFYo55qhonwXKp3RDu9yPcNmhjuYxgxS3Z-eyrQcc3pah8F6cPgTmahIdlN1DoHki_Ww5yCt8w8T9yaq2uPZlin44/w400-h333/Byzantine+Iconoclasm%252C+Chludov+Psalter%252C+9th+century.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><i>Emperor Leo III (r. 717 - 740) of the Byzantine Empire established the Isaurian Dynasty that ruled the Eastern Roman Empire until 802. He put an end to almost 20 years of political instability that witnessed several Emperors, coups, rebellions, monastic vows, and mutilation. He ended a turmoil, only to create a new controversy that characterized the house he had established.</i><span><a name='more'></a></span></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: left;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><b style="font-family: arial;"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b style="font-family: arial;"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: large;">Early Life</span></span></b></div><span style="font-family: arial;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Not much has been known about the early life of Emperor Leo III. He
was born around 675 in Isauria but grew up in Germanikeia in Northern Syria.
Later on, under Emperor Justinian II’s resettlement policies, Leo’s family
moved to Mesembria in Thrace. Their resettlement strengthened Byzantine rule
in a region wrought by raids from different migrating tribes, such as the
Bulgars. When Justinian visited the region with the Bulgars during his second
reign, Leo met the Emperor and provided him 500 sheep to his delight. In
exchange for his display of loyalty, Leo received from Justinian the position
of <i>sparthios</i> or attendant. Eventually, Leo earned Justinian’s favor and
friendship until court politics and intrigue destroyed everything. Rumors
spread that Leo conspired to depose Justinian and to make himself the Emperor.
An inquiry found Leo innocent and the source of the rumor disgraced. Mistrust
between Leo and Justinian, nevertheless, persisted.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><span lang="EN-US"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Leo fell victim to Justinian’s wrath. Paranoia struck the Emperor
who then plotted to remove Leo from the capital. Justinian then sent Leo on a
<b><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2021/04/byzantine-covert-operations-leo-iii-in.html">mission to the Alans to oversee the invasion of the Kingdom of Abasgia</a></b> that
switched their allegiance to the Umayyad Caliphate. He hoped to have Leo killed
in the mission, but in an epic-like story, the <i>sparthios</i> managed to
accomplish his mission and returned home.</span></div><div style="font-size: x-large; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhGvEcTzCX5ymUQ5Lwzw91gDUPUMkv6GUepfwi898_uYGQYw93P9fp4akKXlDqZN7aP1axjMCh2dBjN8pWEtk0BDyFXXsIkr9ic_AdsIHBrywobDCqWf-Tf9vtWg-I1Du_VtWIEHqsokYc/s545/The+Mutilation+of+Emperor+Justinian+II.png" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="545" data-original-width="459" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhGvEcTzCX5ymUQ5Lwzw91gDUPUMkv6GUepfwi898_uYGQYw93P9fp4akKXlDqZN7aP1axjMCh2dBjN8pWEtk0BDyFXXsIkr9ic_AdsIHBrywobDCqWf-Tf9vtWg-I1Du_VtWIEHqsokYc/s320/The+Mutilation+of+Emperor+Justinian+II.png" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">The Mutilation of Emperor Justinian II</span></td></tr></tbody></table><div style="font-size: x-large; text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US"><div style="text-align: justify;">By the time he returned to the Empire, Justinian already passed away
and Artemios sat on the throne. Leo then received his appointment as the <i>Strategos</i>
of Anatolic Theme. During his tenure around 714 and 715, Emperor Anastasios suffered
a rebellion from the Opsician Theme. The rebellious troops initially received
orders to go to the Levant to burn highly-priced cedarwood and Byzantine
equipment before it fell to Muslim hands. However, the Opsician soldiers rose
up in armed defiance instead and proclaimed an obscure and fearful
tax-collector named Theodosius as Emperor. Eventually, through bribery, Theodosius’
rebels won and Anastasios accepted the vow of monastic life and exile to
Thessalonike.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><b><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-US">Taking Power</span></b></div></b><span lang="EN-US"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Despite a regime change, Theodosius’ regime kept Leo in his
position. Leo then threw his lot in the contest for the throne after receiving
the support of Artabasdos, the Strategos of the 2nd biggest theme in the Empire
– the Armeniac Theme. The engagement of Leo’s daughter Anna to Artabasdos
cemented this alliance to claim the throne.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span lang="EN-US"><div style="text-align: justify;">On the other hand, Constantinople found itself once again besieged
by a Muslim expeditionary force under renowned General Maslama ibn Abd
al-Malik. One of Maslama’s subordinates name Suleiman marched into Amorion,
Anatolic Theme’s capital, and sought the support of Leo, writing:</div></span><span lang="EN-US"><div style="text-align: justify;"><blockquote>“We know the Roman Empire is rightfully yours. Come to us; let us
discuss peace terms.”</blockquote></div></span><span lang="EN-US"><div style="text-align: justify;">Thus, the Muslims first recognized him as Emperor before Constantinople
did so. The Muslims hoped for Leo to capture the impregnable Roman capital on
their behalf. During the Muslim advance to Anatolia, Leo took advantage of the
chaotic situation and managed to capture Theodosius’ son along with his retinue
and important officials. Leo then sent a message to the Emperor through the
Patriarch Germanos his ultimatum - The Empire for his own son’s life.
Theodosius, only an Emperor through coercion, accepted the terms and went into
exile peacefully as a monk. Leo took the throne on March 25, 717, and broke off
his alliance with the Muslims.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span></span><span lang="EN-US"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">The army of Maslama then marched to the Byzantine capital and the
ensuing siege became the Basileus’ most immediate pressing matter. Fortunately,
with desertion ripe in the Umayyad Army and assistance from the Bulgars,
Constantinople survived and Leo had the chance to consolidate his power
properly. Through series of marriages, he secured his crown, and through a
victory in the Battle of Akroinon in 740, he pushed back the borders of the
Umayyad Caliphate back into the Levant.</span></div><div style="font-size: x-large; text-align: justify;"><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj91LCK-x8__7qwW21HLwwwLSOV7iFNIzacoX6yRXoQmRFMZ1TPITABgG35mVPHwriaryYgRgc816yfCBl6rVY_NfNxJct92wFcxXUGJ0v0F_T5yoxeNV0sI2KywkEuJ-lxAR_GiCrFHCI/s1023/The+Arabs+Attacking+Constantinople+in+Constantine+Manasses+Chronicle.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="559" data-original-width="1023" height="350" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj91LCK-x8__7qwW21HLwwwLSOV7iFNIzacoX6yRXoQmRFMZ1TPITABgG35mVPHwriaryYgRgc816yfCBl6rVY_NfNxJct92wFcxXUGJ0v0F_T5yoxeNV0sI2KywkEuJ-lxAR_GiCrFHCI/w640-h350/The+Arabs+Attacking+Constantinople+in+Constantine+Manasses+Chronicle.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">The Arabs Attacking Constantinople in Constantine Manasses Chronicle</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></div></span><span style="font-size: large;"><b><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-US">Consolidation of Power</span></b></div></b><span lang="EN-US"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">The new Basileus began crushing all other claims to the throne. In
718, Artemios sought Bulgar support for the restoration of his rule citing a
populace crying for his return. The deposed Emperor then received from Bulgar
leader Trevel an army and 5,000 pounds of gold. His quest went to naught when
he arrived at the outskirts of Constantinople without any cheer or jubilation.
The Bulgars felt duped and handed him over to Leo. Leo ruthlessly executed the
former Emperor and his associates such as Niketas Xylinites
and the Archbishop of Thessalonike where Artemios spent his time in exile.
Following this, another revolt began in Sicily led by the late Anastasios’
supporter. It too failed.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span lang="EN-US"><div style="text-align: justify;">Through marriage, Leo strengthened his hold on power. He honored his
pledge of his daughter Anna’s hand in marriage to Artabasdos. He had his son
Constantine crowned as co-Emperor in 720 and had him marry a Khazarian
princess Tzitzak (took the Christian name Irene) in 732. The alliance formed
with Khazars created a possible pincer attack on the Umayyad Caliphate – the
Byzantines from the west and the Khazars from the north. On the other hand, Leo
kept his western border secured with peaceful relations with the Bulgars.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span lang="EN-US"><div style="text-align: justify;">By creating a geopolitical atmosphere favorable to the Byzantine
Empire, he then launched a massive attack against the Umayyad Caliphate in
740. He defeated the Umayyads in the Battle of Akroïnos (Afyonkarahisar) and
pushed back the frontiers to the Levant.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span lang="EN-US"><div style="text-align: justify;">With military successes that cemented his hold on power, he then
tackled the source of political instability before his reign. The large
Themes provided enough resources for ambitious Strategoi to rebel and to claim
the throne. He wanted to prevent this by dividing the largest themes, in the case
of the Anatolic, he created the Thracesion Theme. With regards, to the Opsikion
Theme that played a role in the overthrow of Anastacios’ regime, he kept its
territorial integrity but placed it in his son-in-law Artrabasdos. Later on,
the Theme under Artabasdos became involved in a plot to overthrow Leo’s son
from power. As his long reign exemplified, this policy seemed to work and along
with the tired population, stability returned to the Empire.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span lang="EN-US"><div style="text-align: justify;">Another Leo’s reform involved the Byzantine Law. For centuries the
Justinian Code reigned supreme, but it needed reform to adapt to the changing
social and religious setup. His <i>Ecologa</i>, promulgated in 626, provided
jurisprudence for civil and criminal law. Besides, it also dedicated
numerous entries with regards to family law and inheritance. A simpler and
convenient version of the Justinian Code. It has several improvements influenced by
the Christian canon law. It also downplayed the death penalty favoring
mutilations that prevailed before his reign and onwards. </div></span><b><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-US">Iconoclasm</span></b></div></b></span><span lang="EN-US"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Either through influence by others, superstition, or to shore up
support among his power base in the eastern provinces of the Empire, Leo began
a controversy that defined the Isaurian dynasty - Iconoclasm. Leo showed his
zealousness in the 720s with policies of forced conversions. However, his
Iconoclastic policies that began in 730 divided opinions that lasted for more
than 50 years.</span></div><div style="font-size: x-large; text-align: justify;"><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh3tnatgwQ6ecI45ediU3ZHGyrWZcYzuamuuAWRb2HhyatJfHoxU3V7DWPxhlZANVkmBZtEUh_eH_YmObQ5fqh8mF__Vj44sLVt1CKmV3wBSO-66viOWqbo_cflOOHXrMljCmOfGCTMk9o/s1024/Argument+about+icons+before+the+emperor%252C+in+the+Skylitzis+Chronicle.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="558" data-original-width="1024" height="348" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh3tnatgwQ6ecI45ediU3ZHGyrWZcYzuamuuAWRb2HhyatJfHoxU3V7DWPxhlZANVkmBZtEUh_eH_YmObQ5fqh8mF__Vj44sLVt1CKmV3wBSO-66viOWqbo_cflOOHXrMljCmOfGCTMk9o/w640-h348/Argument+about+icons+before+the+emperor%252C+in+the+Skylitzis+Chronicle.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;"><span face="sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #202122; text-align: start;">An argument about icons before the emperor, in the </span>Skylitzis Chronicle</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></div></span><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US"><div style="text-align: justify;">In 722, Leo took a crusader mode forcing the baptism of Jews and Montanists,
a Christian sect deemed as heretical. The persecution said to have resulted in
series of blasphemies against the Orthodox churches as well as, according to
Theophanes, self-immolation as a sign of protest. This revealed the Emperor’s
active interest in religious affairs.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span lang="EN-US"><div style="text-align: justify;">Leo’s religious views with regards to images may have begun during
his time in Isauria (Northern Syria) where he came into contact with Islamic
laws prohibiting the depiction of Allah and Mohammad and ironically Jewish.
Many thought so, including the chronicler Theophanes who labeled him
“Saracen-minded.” According to Theophanes, Leo also fell to the influence of a Syrian
refugee named Beser, the Bishop Constantine of Nakoleia (Nacolia) which many
later dubbed the “arch-heretic.” Also, his ears opened to Metropolitan
Thomas of Claudiopolis, and with the “arch-heretic” fed Leo’s growing
opposition to religious icons. He joined a trend that already found support
among the populace of the Empire's eastern provinces, such as Phrygia. By 724,
discussion over religious icons began. This reached Rome and Pope Gregory II
criticized Leo’s intervention in religious doctrines and protest by ceasing
tribute payments to Constantinople.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span lang="EN-US"><div style="text-align: justify;">Natural disasters played also a role in convincing the Emperor
further into Iconoclasm. These included the flooding of Edessa and an
underwater volcanic eruption between Thera (modern-day Santorini) and Therasia
resulting in massive ash falls and tsunamis. The apocalyptic disaster distraught Leo and his devotion to Iconoclasm strengthened.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span lang="EN-US"><div style="text-align: justify;">By 726, he acted his furry towards icon by desecrating a highly
venerated image of Christ in Chalcoprateia quarter in the capital. The
vandalism stirred a riot among his guards and the populace. A purge ensued with
mass mutilations, exiles, and fines. Rebellion from Hellas Theme and the Cyclades began
and a man named Kosmas declared himself Emperor. The rebels almost reached
Constantinople, but they soundly failed, defeated by Greek fire, effectively
crushing the movement. Despite the public outburst in his initial attacks on
icons, his determination even strengthened when the Muslims attacked Nicaea and
defeated Roman forces.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span lang="EN-US"><div style="text-align: justify;">By 730, the Emperor enacted edicts against idolatry and attempted to
gain the religious hierarchy's approval. His edict failed to be approved
by the Church and he began to criticize and intimidate the highly critical Patriarch
Germanos. In retaliation, the Patriarch unleashed a shocking criticism against
the Emperor:</div></span><span lang="EN-US"><div style="text-align: justify;"><blockquote>“Heaven forbid, my lord that this evil should come to pass through
your rule. For he who does it is the forerunner of the Antichrist and the
overthrower of the incarnate and divine dispensation.”</blockquote></div></span></span><span lang="EN-US"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">The contest between Leo and Germanos dragged and turned dirty. Leo
enlisted the help of Germanos’ student and <i>syncellus</i> or apprentice Anastasios to condemn
the Patriarch. Ultimately, Leo prevailed and overthrew Germanos replacing him
with Anastasios who became patriarch on January 22, 730 as a reward for
becoming a snitch. In Syria, the renowned that age’s premier Theologian John of
Damascus also denounced Leo’s Iconoclasm, while Pope Gregory II lambasted Leo’s
religious policy and began to drive Italy away from Byzantine control raising
tensions. Leo, in retaliation, increased taxes to Byzantine possessions in
Italy and prepared for a military expedition to the Peninsula, but due to
Muslim pirate attacks, it failed to reach its destination.</span></div><div style="font-size: x-large; text-align: justify;"><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgGWc0eEWBpAhbjC-JYxQCWoNgRiguZb07ej7trZyYuwZ37h06I68EfaHyOn3ti1sd1hZ5Y9ZsUmL-oPKyvoL11Kzr4WgXL1hTpMBRtBG9Hi6eZ0q55tzNHuVe_hhRHTNULQy_2IXYHpeQ/s400/Patrirach+Germanos.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="381" data-original-width="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgGWc0eEWBpAhbjC-JYxQCWoNgRiguZb07ej7trZyYuwZ37h06I68EfaHyOn3ti1sd1hZ5Y9ZsUmL-oPKyvoL11Kzr4WgXL1hTpMBRtBG9Hi6eZ0q55tzNHuVe_hhRHTNULQy_2IXYHpeQ/s320/Patrirach+Germanos.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Patriarch Germanos</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></div></span><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US"><div style="text-align: justify;">Leo severed ties of the Bishop of Rome with the Churches in
Byzantine-held Sicily, Calabria, and Illyria transferring their jurisdiction to
the Patriarch of Constantinople. Furthermore, poll taxes from this region also
shifted their remittance from Rome to Constantinople. The rift led Rome to rely
less and less on Constantinople and favoring the rising power of the Frankish
Empire. Among the Italian population, the policy also met opposition and
loyalty towards the Eastern Roman Empire significantly drop making it
vulnerable to encroachment.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span lang="EN-US"><div style="text-align: justify;">With news of Italy’s secession and growing unpopularity towards
Iconoclasm, a Muslim invasion salvaged Leo’s reign. He and Constantine
successfully defeated in 740 a Muslim Army of around 20,000 troops in the
Battle of Akroïnos. The Battle became Leo and his dynasty’s Falklands War.
Despite being unpopular, they remained in power by bringing pride, security,
and prestige.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><b><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-US">Demise</span></b></div></b><span lang="EN-US"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">In 741, Leo III passed away. His son, Constantine, described by
Theophanes as “the forerunner of the Antichrist” succeeded him to the throne.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><b><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-US">Summing Up</span></b></div></b><span lang="EN-US"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Leo III ended a Game of Thrones that saw 6 Emperors in 2 decades.
With a strong alliance and a military victory, he climbed up as the strongest
man capable of holding the throne. After climbing, he made sure he stayed.
However, being superstitious alongside environmental or personal influences, he
began a controversy that created deep divisions with serious profound historic
implications. Iconoclasm defined the politics of the Isaurian dynasty and
European history with the biggest effect being the establishment of the Holy
Roman Empire and the Great Schism. His involvement in religious affairs ruined
his image to many chroniclers that served as the source in Byzantine History.
Only a timely victory saved the dynasty to survive for few more decades. Leo
III founded the Isaurian Dynasty at the back of chaos and division.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><b><span lang="EN-US">See also:<br /></span></b><span lang="EN-US">Isaurian Dynasty<br /></span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2021/04/empress-irene-woman-that-built-holy.html">Empress Irene</a><br /></span><b><span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></b></span></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b><span lang="EN-US">Bibliography:<br /></span></b><b><span lang="EN-US">Website:<br /></span></b><span lang="EN-US">Editors of Britannica Encyclopedia. “Leo III.” <i>Encyclopedia
Britannica</i>. Accessed on April 14, 2021. URL: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Leo-III<br /></span><b><span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></b></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b><span lang="EN-US">Books:<br /></span></b><span lang="EN-US">Ostrogorsky, Georg. <i>History of the Byzantine State</i>. New Brunswick, New
Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1957.<br /></span><span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US">Turtledove, Harry. <i>The Chronicle of Theophanes: An English
translation of Anni Mundi 6095 – 6305 (A.D. 602-813)</i>, with Introduction and
Notes. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1982.</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>Bob Corcuerahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14748111488274035197noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3147004568822447450.post-15404481106512921672021-04-12T00:01:00.101+08:002021-04-14T21:32:19.985+08:00Byzantine Covert Operations - Leo III in the Caucasus<div style="text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Covert operations and proxy wars filed the history of the Cold War – a battle between 2 superpowers of the 20th century. Covert operations and proxy wars, however, already existed way before and used by many of the great empires in history to weaken or humiliate rival powers. Such as the case of the Byzantine Empire and the Umayyad Caliphate in the late 7th and early 8th century, when Emperor Justinian II sent his </span><span style="font-family: arial;">spartharios</span><span style="font-family: arial;">, the future <b><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2021/04/founders-who-is-emperor-leo-iii-isaurian.html">Emperor Leo III</a></b>, to the Alans and help them defeat the Abasgians who switched their fealty in favor of the Muslim Empire.</span></span></i></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="font-family: arial; font-size: x-large; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Lazica_in_Late_Antiquity.svg/1024px-Lazica_in_Late_Antiquity.svg.png" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="800" height="360" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Lazica_in_Late_Antiquity.svg/1024px-Lazica_in_Late_Antiquity.svg.png" width="400" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Map of the kingdom of Lazica, by Cplakidas, CC BY-SA 3.0</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: x-large;"><a name='more'></a></span></div><div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><i>A mission filled with deception and treachery, Leo’s mission, as
Theophanes narrated in his work the Chronicles, befit a novel, a drama, and
even an epic. He wrote the following:</i></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /><div style="text-align: justify;"></div></span></div><blockquote><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">"Annus Mundi 6209 (September 1, 716 – August 31, 717)</div></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: left;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Some men who were jealous of Leo falsely accused him of grasping for
the imperial power. There was an inquiry about this, with the result that his
accusers were disgraced, but from then on many began to speak of this notion.
If indeed, Justinian did not wish to harm Leo openly, he did begin to feel
anger toward him.</div></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: left;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">He sent Leo to Alania [Land of the Alans] with money to help the Alans
against the Abasgians [later Abkhazians] because the Saracens had conquered Abasgia,
Lazika [Lazica], and Iberia. Leo went to Lazika, and stored the money at
Phasis. He took a few of the locals to Apsilia and, crossing the Caucasus
Mountains, reached Alania. But Justinian now wanted to destroy him, and sent
out a messenger who took the money back from Phasis.</div></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: left;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">The Alans received the <i>spartharios
</i>[Leo] with all honor, paid attention to his plans, and invaded and captured
Abasgia. The lord of the Abasgians told the Alans, 'As I have found, Justinian
does not have anyone else who is a big a liar as this man. The Emperor made him
go off to work with you against us, your neighbors. Leo has even lied to you
about his promise of money, for Justinian sent a man and took it back. Give him
to us and we will pay you 3,000 nomismata; also, we will not break off the
friendship we have always felt.'</div></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: left;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">But the Alans said, 'We do not obey him on account of money, but
because of our love for the Emperor.'</div></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: left;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">The Abasgians sent them men again, saying, 'Give him to us and we will
give you 6,000 nomismata.' As they wanted to learn the Abasgians’ land
thoroughly, the Alans agreed to take the 6,000 nomismata and give up the
general. But they told Leo everything, and said to him, 'As you see, the road
to Romania [Eastern Roman Empire/Byzantine Empire] is closed, and you do not
know how to cross. Instead, let us turn around and agree with them to give you
up. We will send our men off with them, learn their mountain passes, and raid
and devastate their land to do your service.'</div></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: left;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">So the Alans’ envoy went to Abasgia and agreed to give up the <i>spatharios</i>; they received gifts of
friendship from the Abasgians. The Abasgians sent back more envoys with the
amount of money to get the <i>spartharios</i>.
The Alans told Leo, 'Just as we said before, these men have come to take you,
and Abasgia awaits you. When we near their land, our agents will not stop going
to them. Furthermore, in order to keep from giving away our goal, we will
openly give you up. But when your party has left, we will secretly come back to
kill them, and will hide you until our army is mustered and we can invade their
land by surprise.'</div></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: left;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">This, in fact, is what happened. The Abasgians’ envoys took the <i>spatharios</i> and his men, bound them, and
went off. The Alans and their lord Itaxes [Itaz] overtook the Abasgians from
behind; they killed them and hid Leo. Once they had levied troops, they marched
on Abasgia and unexpectedly penetrated its passes. They took a great number of
prisoners and worked destructions on the Abasgians.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">When Justinian heard that his goal had been accomplished even without
his money, he sent letters to the Abasgians: 'If you preserve our general and
let him come through your territory unharmed, we will suffer all your errors.'
They were overjoyed to agree to this, and sent a message back to Alania: 'We
will give you our children as hostages; give us the <i>spatharios</i> so we can send him to Justinian.' But Leo would not
accept this; he said, 'May God open me a gate so I can go away, as I will not
do so through Abasgia.'</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">After a certain time, a force of Romans and Armenians invaded Lazika and
besieged Arkhaiopolis [Archaeopolis or now known as Nokalakevi], but retreated
when they heard the Saracens were coming. About 200 got cut off from them;
these men moved north and raided Apsilia and the Caucasus. When the Saracens
overran Lazika, the army of the Romans and Armenians fled to Phasis. The 200
men still in the Caucasus Mountains stayed there as brigands, since they had
lost hope for themselves.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">When the Alans learned this, they thought there was a Roman host in the Caucasus; rejoicing at this, they said to the <i>spatharios</i>, 'The Romans are near – go to them.' He took fifty Alans
and crossed the peaks of the Caucasus with snowshoes (in May!). He found the
men and joyfully asked them, 'Where is your army?'</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">They said, 'When the Saracens attacked, it went back to Romania. Since
we could not get there, we have been on the way to Alania.'</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">'What shall we do now?' he asked them.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">'We cannot travel this land,' they said.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">The <i>spatharios</i> answered, 'It
is impossible to leave by any other route.'</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">There was a fortress there called Sideron, in which was a commander
named Pharasmanios, who was subject to the Saracens and at peace with the
Armenians. The <i>spatharios</i> sent him a
message: Because you are at peace with the Armenians, make peace with me as
well. Come under the Empire, and help us go down to the sea so we can cross to
Trebizond. Since Pharasmanios did not choose to do this, the <i>spatharios</i> sent out some of his men and
some Armenians, ordering them to lay an ambush: When they leave the fortress
to work, overpower as many of them as you can and seize the gates from the men
outside until we get there too. They went there to lay the ambush, and made a
sudden attack when the garrison came out to work; they captured the gates and
took many prisoners.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">But Pharasmanios was still in the citadel with a few men; when the <i>spatharios</i> arrived, he tried to talk him
into opening the gates in peace. He did not wish to do so and fought. Since
his citadel was strong, Leo could not take it.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">When Marinos (the leader of the Apsilians) learned the fortess was
under siege he grew fearful, as he thought the <i>spatharios</i> had a large army. He took 300 men to the <i>spatharios</i>, and told him, I will
maintain you until you reach the coast. Once Pharasmanios had seen this state
of affairs, he said to the <i>spatharios,</i> Take my child as a hostage; I agree to serve the Empire.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Leo took his child, then told him, What sort of servant of the Empire
do you call yourself, when you are talking with us while shut up? We cannot
withdraw until we have taken your citadel.</div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Then Pharasmanios said, 'Give me your pledge.'</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">The <i>spatharios</i> promised he
would not treat him unjustly and would enter the citadel with only 30men. But
he did not keep his promise, ordering the 30 who entered with him, 'When we go
in, seize the gates to all of us can get in.' After this was done he ordered
the citadel set afire. There was a great conflagration; the families came out,
snatching up whatever they could of their property.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">After they spent another 3 days there, the troops razed the fort’s wall
to the ground. With the Apsilian leader Marinos they went to Apsilia, where the
Apsilians received them with great honor. From there Leo went to the coast,
crossed, and went to Justinian."</div></span></div></blockquote><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b>See also:</b><br /></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Leo III the Isaurian<br /></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Justinian II<br /></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b>Bibliography:</b></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;">Turtledove, Harry. <i>The Chronicle of Theophanes:
An English translation of Anni Mundi 6095 – 6305 (A.D. 602-813), with
Introduction and Notes</i>. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania
Press, 1982.</span></span></div><div><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div></div>Bob Corcuerahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14748111488274035197noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3147004568822447450.post-20241105447463845192021-04-10T00:01:00.165+08:002021-04-14T21:35:13.093+08:00Empress Irene: the Woman that Built the Holy Roman Empire<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><i>In 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne as Imperator Romanus – Emperor of Rome. Leo’s decision to crown a new Roman Emperor despite one already existing in Constantinople stemmed from the fact that the holder of this title in the east was a woman – Irene of Athens. But who was this female Emperor who ruled one of the most powerful and prestigious Empires in the Middle Ages?</i></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhrE3qu3nsxqQnwTSWTUb5hB1Gjx6laFs0t7lGGRNjwXy113kaT3vJvtFjvTZqo6o3dh6qDXkSUQjB87Q2cDT_cexxnVq-pudYgSUUxohWd-4T-eAEmv-bEPruDtmdvYBjwU26XyZkaNsU/s1024/Woodcut+Illustration+of+Empress+Irene+%2528in+the+left%2529+and+Charlemagne+%2528in+the+right%2529.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="966" data-original-width="1024" height="604" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhrE3qu3nsxqQnwTSWTUb5hB1Gjx6laFs0t7lGGRNjwXy113kaT3vJvtFjvTZqo6o3dh6qDXkSUQjB87Q2cDT_cexxnVq-pudYgSUUxohWd-4T-eAEmv-bEPruDtmdvYBjwU26XyZkaNsU/w640-h604/Woodcut+Illustration+of+Empress+Irene+%2528in+the+left%2529+and+Charlemagne+%2528in+the+right%2529.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Woodcut Illustration of Empress Irene (in the left) and Charlemagne (in the right), <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/">from Penn Provenance Project, CC by 2.0</a></span></td></tr></tbody></table></b><span><br /><a name='more'></a></span><b>Early Life</b><br /></span><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;">Irene traced her roots in Athens under the Byzantine Hellas Theme. Born in 752, she came from a family of the noble Greek family of Sarantapechos. She became an orphan, but luckily her uncle or cousin Constantine Sarantapechos took care of her and she grew up popularly beautiful as well as ambitious, cunning, and pious.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Irene married Byzantine Emperor Leo IV the Khazar on December 17, 768, and gave birth to their son Constantine on January 14, 771. With her influence, Leo stood moderately on the issue that dominated politics and religion during that time – Iconoclasm. Iconoclasm or the Iconoclastic Controversy rooted from the 3rd Commandment “Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image” and other Old Testament stories such as Moses and the Golden Calf. The conflict between those who supported the veneration of images of Christ as well as saints called Iconophiles or Iconodules and those who rejected such celebration known as Iconoclast erupted in 730 during the reign of <a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2021/04/founders-who-is-emperor-leo-iii-isaurian.html"><b>Emperor Leo III</b></a> that affected politics and diplomacy. Irene, coming from Athens in Greece, supported the Iconophiles that prevailed over the clergy, western regions of the Empire, and women. Leo lightly treaded the schism until 780 when he suddenly joined the camp of Iconoclast and began a persecution against those who supported icons. According to legend, Leo discovered an icon beneath Irene’s pillow. He had her locked up and began a persecution of Iconodules.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhI2dIXybQdrPYyblQu6jTeCy0bVZBqB3lLHRSSFGqfcE0FCnu0UXpQMX02daVopNZvgQGVv0WuiWz3HRfanfV3ncKW3q8XDDlcp5lj1LZfnWuLEG9JP5XTWwAzSsl22KJL3-vjQncVcak/s600/Leo+IV.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="599" data-original-width="600" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhI2dIXybQdrPYyblQu6jTeCy0bVZBqB3lLHRSSFGqfcE0FCnu0UXpQMX02daVopNZvgQGVv0WuiWz3HRfanfV3ncKW3q8XDDlcp5lj1LZfnWuLEG9JP5XTWwAzSsl22KJL3-vjQncVcak/s320/Leo+IV.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Leo IV (in the left)</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></div><b><div style="text-align: justify;"><b>Regency during Constantine VI</b></div></b><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">In September 780, Irene’s husband, Emperor Leo IV, passed away paving the way for the succession of their 10-year-old son Constantine VI. Irene allegedly poisoned Leo, possibly for his persecution of the Iconophile faction.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">As regent, she veered away from the nobility and towards eunuchs whom she appointed in various civil and military positions. Her favorite, Stauracius, proved to be a capable military commander. Stauracius initially repelled Muslim attacks, but a betrayal from a jealous general derailed his success forcing Irene to negotiate and pay tribute to Baghdad. Nevertheless, Stauracius continued to serve in the army restoring Byzantine control of Greece, a military achievement that Irene used to strengthen her grip on power.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Her regency saw the crushing of a conspiracy by Iconoclasts to usurp the throne for Irene’s brother-in-law and half-brother of Leo, Nicephorus. Irene countered this threat by purging the military of Iconoclast elements and exiling the brothers of the late Emperor making them take monastic vows, thus disqualifying them from becoming Emperors.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Irene hoped to put an end to the Iconoclastic Controversy once and for all. To do this, she had to control the powerful position of Patriarch of Constantinople and call for an Ecumenical Council. An opportunity presented itself with the death of the Iconoclast Patriarch Paul IV. She then has her ally Tarasios elected as Patriarch and convened at the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople on May 31, 786 a council of Bishops from the whole Empire. Christendom awaited news of the result of the council as both Eastern Orthodox churches as well as the Papacy sent delegates to the conference. However, Irene’s son Constantine VI took the Iconoclast cause and instigated the remaining Iconoclast army units to interrupt the proceedings. This prevented a definitive conclusion to the controversy temporarily. Irene and Tarasios understood the need to take control of the army, to purge its Iconoclast elements before putting an end to the controversy that caused political instability within the Empire.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgpRzFxOP0ZIFvQNgFcuMmTk-gkDN3qe0d8U305iBLkAi6lE5xtUiImqdx0k2As0cEi_yYWlLO_BlfOlesD4W2H52cQ1hudzAIEVBvXXg4MEHSSe250AGHUio5BmMK03m6VDskpqqhRnqg/s248/Patriarch+Tarasios.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="248" data-original-width="150" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgpRzFxOP0ZIFvQNgFcuMmTk-gkDN3qe0d8U305iBLkAi6lE5xtUiImqdx0k2As0cEi_yYWlLO_BlfOlesD4W2H52cQ1hudzAIEVBvXXg4MEHSSe250AGHUio5BmMK03m6VDskpqqhRnqg/w242-h400/Patriarch+Tarasios.jpg" width="242" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Patriarch Tarasios</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Purge the military she did in a subtle way. In the east, the Abbasid Caliphate restarted its territorial expansion. When the crisis appeared, Irene saw an opportunity. She transferred Iconoclast units of the army east to fight the Abbasids and placed the security of the capital in the hands of Iconophile troops. When the Iconoclast troops arrived at their destinations in the east, Irene’s soldiers had them disarmed and sent back to their homes. With the capital safe and the Iconoclast disarming and dispersing, she then convened another Ecumenical Council this time in Nicaea on September 13, 787. After a month of deliberation, finally, after more than 50 years, the controversy ended with a defeat for Iconoclast and the revival of veneration of icons. In celebration of these achievements, many paralleled Irene and Constantine VI to the late Roman mother and son Helena and Constantine I.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b>End of the Regency</b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">As Constantine grew up to adulthood, so as his resentment of Irene. Irene refused to show any intention of stepping down from power, ending the regency, and allowing Constantine’s direct rule. The young Constantine then gambled and plotted to overthrow her mother from power. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">After Irene derailed the plot in 790, she demanded that official documents address her first rather than her son – a blatant display of seniority and power over the rightful Emperor. This, however, backfired as Irene overstepped her assertiveness causing another plot against her regime. She foiled Constantine’s plot placed her son in captivity and demanded swears of loyalty from officials and the military. However, Iconoclast themes in Anatolia refused and rose up in revolt aiming to overthrow the regency and establish Constantine’s direct rule. The opposition led to the end of the regency and Irene’s banishment from the court and confinement to the Eleutherios Palace.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Within 2 years, however, she managed to return to court and took the position of co-ruler. Constantine proved to be a luckless military leader losing against the Bulgar in April 791 and then against the Muslims in October. His defeats made him unpopular and with his back against the wall, decided to recall and forgive his mother. Irene made a comeback in Constantinople with vengeance in mind.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">During the co-rulership, another conspiracy emerged plotted by Irene’s brother-in-law Nicephorus. Apparently, Nicephorus and his brothers continued to plot their political comeback despite their internment in monasteries. This time Irene decisively responded. She had Nicephorus blinded and his 4 other brother-in-laws muted – political mutilation that ultimately bared them from taking any positions of power.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">In January 795, a scandalous affair rocked the Eastern Roman Empire which became known as the Moechian Controversy or Adulterous Controversy. Emperor Constantine VI stripped his Empress Maria of Amnia of her title and banished her to a convent. A few months later on October 7, 796, he married Theodote, a lady-in-waiting, resulting in a son. The Patriarch Tarasios only approved the union under coercion, nevertheless, many monks protested his decision to sanction marriage. Constantine then purged the clergy and the government of those who opposed his new marriage. Many found themselves imprisoned and exiled. Irene said to have encouraged the marriage to stir up opposition against Constantine. She then used the marriage scandal to rally support in her plot to overthrow her son. When Constantine marched east to fight the Muslims, Irene staged her coup. News about the conspiracy reached Constantine, but instead of returning to the capital to fight for his throne, he fled east – the bastion of Iconoclasts and his supporters. Before he reached safety though, Irene’s troops captured him and on August 15, 797 brought him to Irene in the Porphyry Chamber, his place of birth. In a twisted irony, in this chamber, Irene ordered the agonizing blinding of his son making him unfit to rule and in such a way causing his death shortly thereafter. Irene then made a radical declaration, she assumed the position of <i>Basileus</i> or Emperor rather than <i>Basileia</i> or Empress. A political move to declare her absolute power – a move that female leaders took such as Jadwiga of Poland.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgZYHPuYSW8T0-eFujPuXghLTddEUlaBqEIykAzzP4hmsnMKST5u4qL06N1KB31fRauMZeW45pFyeTVUMyWjSGpaqMPVmRcj0eY2jeCibm4wK_I3PES8YIhXXfNXDt8tOfGPQoJDE_ZMrY/s952/Jadwiga+by+Marcello+Bacciarelli.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="952" data-original-width="757" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgZYHPuYSW8T0-eFujPuXghLTddEUlaBqEIykAzzP4hmsnMKST5u4qL06N1KB31fRauMZeW45pFyeTVUMyWjSGpaqMPVmRcj0eY2jeCibm4wK_I3PES8YIhXXfNXDt8tOfGPQoJDE_ZMrY/s320/Jadwiga+by+Marcello+Bacciarelli.jpg" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Queen Jadwiga of Poland, <br />who took the title of <i>Rex</i> or King</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></div><b><div style="text-align: justify;"><b>Reign of “Emperor” Irene</b></div></b><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">"Emperor” Irene faced several issues in foreign affairs. To the west, the growing might and influence of the Frankish King Charlemagne over Western Europe and the Papacy. To the east, the Abbasid Caliphate under Caliph Harun al-Rashid threatened the borders of the Empire. Both aimed to weakened or challenge the last vestiges of the Roman Empire.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Towards Charlemagne, relations took a cordial path. Back in 782, Irene attempted to forge a marriage between his son Constantine and Charlemagne’s daughter Rotrud. She sent a tutor to teach the Frankish princess Greek and provided introductory lessons to Eastern Roman Imperial culture. However, the difference in icons broke the wedding plans and a father’s love against sending his daughter to a faraway disrupted the engagement. Territorial disputes plagued the relations between the 2 powers. In 788, the Empire lost Istria and Benevento to the Franks. Then in 800, <a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2021/04/who-was-pope-leo-iii.html"><b>Pope Leo III</b></a> declared Charlemagne Roman Emperor. In the eyes of the Bishop of Rome a woman holding the title of Roman Emperor might as well be a vacant position and to further military and political favors with the nearer and powerful Frankish Empire, Charlemagne had as a Christmas gift the title of Roman Emperor. The act humiliated Constantinople, but soon Charlemagne made it clear he had no intention of contending with Irene. Rather he proposed a Byzantine-Frankish union by proposing marriage to Irene. However, scheming officials close to Irene opposed and killed this powerful union before its birth.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgjS3b-qgZLpQS4SEgthUMYHulJn8HGhVTTfIp5g_KNpX-ey3xBnnsJ3CQu_DgWR_Fu1-bTuYS-fUe78_P1Uw_Y0mQbrvryHxkREzTeladJgYF93Tv5fII9tJSaXzBCZxyZ0Xkm5mDnruk/s424/Leo+III+Crowing+Charlemagne%252C+by+Friedrich+Kaulbach%252C+1861.png" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="424" data-original-width="330" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgjS3b-qgZLpQS4SEgthUMYHulJn8HGhVTTfIp5g_KNpX-ey3xBnnsJ3CQu_DgWR_Fu1-bTuYS-fUe78_P1Uw_Y0mQbrvryHxkREzTeladJgYF93Tv5fII9tJSaXzBCZxyZ0Xkm5mDnruk/s320/Leo+III+Crowing+Charlemagne%252C+by+Friedrich+Kaulbach%252C+1861.png" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Leo's coronation of Charlemagne</span></td></tr></tbody></table><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">On the other hand, towards the east, Harun al-Rashid forces stood poise to invade the Eastern Roman Empire. Back in the 780s, Harun al-Rashid provided a safe haven to Elpidius of Sicily who led a failed rebellion against Irene. As the Muslim army prepared to march in 782, the Governor of the Bucellarian Theme, Tatzates, defected to the Arabs and alarmed Constantinople. However, Irene placated the Muslims by bribing them agreeing to a 3-year truce with an annual payment of tribute worth 70,000 or 90,000 dinars in addition to 10,000 silk garments in addition to provision and guides to march out of Anatolia. The Caliph of the Abbasid, being honorable, put a stop to the invasion, and secured peace for a while. The peace lasted until 798, when suddenly a new Abbasid threat reemerge, only being foiled by another concession by Irene.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">On the domestic front, Irene’s political policy produced factionalism, but she achieved great popularity with his populist reforms. With her son dead and no heir in sight, many looked towards closer relations with Irene as their ticket to the throne. Irene, on the other hand, used herself as bait playing different factions against one another. She made herself as the distraction to prevent any thoughts of a coup. Despite fostering factionalism, she earned the love of the people by her decision to lower taxes and abolish others. Her support of community outreach such as soup kitchens and hospices earned her the love of the common Romans. Merchants celebrated her regime when her government reduced import and export duties. The elite fought against each other while the common people celebrated under Irene’s rule.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><b><div style="text-align: justify;"><b>Fall and Exile</b></div></b><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">In 802, a plot against Irene succeeded. Masterminded by Irene’s finance minister Nicephorus. Irene’s lowering of taxes, abolition of some dues, along with a ravaged countryside as a result of Muslim raids infuriated her finance minister, thus a plot hatched. Irene, already old, accepted her fell from power fearing the same fate as his son if she resisted. She went into exile to the island of Prinkipo, now modern-day Büyükada, then, later on, moved to a monastery in Lesbos. She continued to live her monastic life until August 9, 803. For her compassion towards the poor and her devotion to icons, the Orthodox Church canonized her and made August 9 her feast day.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><b>See also:</b><br /><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2021/04/how-great-was-charlemagne.html">Charlemagne</a><br /><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b>Bibliography:</b><br /><b>Websites:</b><br />“Irene of Athens (c. 752 – 803).” <i>Women in World History: A Biographical Encyclopedia</i>. <u>Encyclopedia.com</u>. Accessed March 31, 2021. URL: https://www.encyclopedia.com/women/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/irene-athens-c-752-803<br /><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">“Irene of Athens.” <i>Your Dictionary</i>. Accessed on March 30, 2021. URL: https://biography.yourdictionary.com/irene-of-athens<br /><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">“The Emperor Irene.” <i>ER Services</i>. Accessed on March 31, 2021. URL: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldhistory/<br /><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. “Irene.” <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>. Accessed on March 30, 2021. URL: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Irene-Byzantine-empress-752-803<br /><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b>General References:</b><br />“Irene, c. 752-803.” <i>Encyclopedia of Greece and the Hellenic Tradition</i>. Edited by Graham Speake. New York, New York: Routledge, 2000.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br />Herbst, Matthew. “Irene (r. 797-802 CE).” <i>The Byzantine Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia</i>. Edited by James Francis LePree. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2019.<br /><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b>Books:</b><br />Garland, Lynda. <i>Byzantine Empresses: Women and Power in Byzantium, AD 527 – 1204</i>. New York, New York: Routledge, 1999.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br />Turtledove, Harry. <i>The Chronicle of Theophanes: An English translation of Anni Mundi 6095 – 6305 (A.D. 602-813), with Introduction and Notes</i>. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1982.<br /></span></div>Bob Corcuerahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14748111488274035197noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3147004568822447450.post-60899283312897067902021-04-07T00:01:00.003+08:002021-04-15T20:04:12.012+08:00Who was Pope Leo III?<div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: left;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgZft0BS7mM059qwwhHY9bcP-46p7e5dfwxpi-w6lvDKd5ggqWD869pzDDRTVGopJ0XQtV2NS3FuTGgVcLEWk1f2-9sHFgFdZhYM8vR7Q3znxdYaXXNPk1vYGcDZYN3nUWqKCjVy2NVNiE/s424/Leo+III+Crowing+Charlemagne%252C+by+Friedrich+Kaulbach%252C+1861.png" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="424" data-original-width="330" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgZft0BS7mM059qwwhHY9bcP-46p7e5dfwxpi-w6lvDKd5ggqWD869pzDDRTVGopJ0XQtV2NS3FuTGgVcLEWk1f2-9sHFgFdZhYM8vR7Q3znxdYaXXNPk1vYGcDZYN3nUWqKCjVy2NVNiE/w311-h400/Leo+III+Crowing+Charlemagne%252C+by+Friedrich+Kaulbach%252C+1861.png" width="311" /></a></div><i>In 800, his decision to crown Charlemagne created the most confusing political entity in Europe that lasted for about a millennia. The Holy Roman
Empire owed its existence to Charlemagne and the man who crowned him Roman
Emperor – Pope Leo III, but who was Pope Leo III?</i><span><a name='more'></a></span></span></span></div><b><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Beginnings of Pope Leo III</span></b></div></b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Pope Leo was the son of Atyuppius and Elizabeth. He grew up in Rome,
but lacked a noble background and even Roman ancestry, possibly having a
Greek or Arab origins. His background then caused irritation to the Roman elite
contributing to the opposition to his papacy.</div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">He joined the clergy and earned a reputation as a talented
administrator. His rise brought him to the post of <i>Vestiarius</i> or Papal Treasurer. Along with his appointment to
important administrative positions, he also garnered ranks and titles becoming
a Cardinal Priest for Santa Susanna.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">On December 25, 795, Pope Adrian I passed away resulting in a conclave
to elect a new Bishop of Rome. The 795 Conclave only lasted a day where Leo
emerged as the new Pope Leo III.</div></span><b><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Pontificate</span></b></div></b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">On December 26, 795, Pope Leo III’s pontificate began, and under his
leadership, the Papacy fostered closer ties to the most powerful warlord in
Europe – the Frankish King Charles or <b><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2021/04/how-great-was-charlemagne.html">Charlemagne</a></b>.
From a rebellion that threatened his eyes and tongue, Leo walked a path that
created Europe’s most confusing political entity and title, paved the way to a great divide in Christianity, and forged a love-hate relationship between Popes
and Kings.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Pope Leo III understood his precarious situation. Despite winning the
papacy, he knew the Roman elites, who looked down on his humble and non-Roman
roots, plotting against him. He used for his advantage the warming ties between
the Papacy and the greatest military juggernaut in Western Europe that of
Charlemagne and the Frankish Empire – an empire covering much of modern-day
France, Germany, Low Countries, Central Europe, and Northern Italy. The
relation began with the rise of King Pepin the Short who ended the reigns of
the Merovingian Kings with Papal support. This further strengthened when King Pepin
made a handsome donation of lands in Central Italy to the Pope – lands that
became known as the Papal State.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">With Leo’s ascension as the successor of St. Peter, he made symbolic
strides towards Charlemagne. He wrote to the Frankish leader affirming Roman
loyalty towards him and sent along with the Keys of St. Peter and the standard of
the city of Rome. Moreover, he requested Charlemagne to send an envoy, which
the Frankish leader did in form of Angilbert, to go to Rome and personally
received the fealty of the Romans. The act came both as a sign of submission,
but also as a reminder to Charlemagne of his obligation to protect Rome and the
Papacy. Such a reminder of protection went useful in 799.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><b><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">799 Challenge to Leo III</span></b></div></b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Towards the 4th year of his pontificate, on April 25, 799, Leo faced an
uprising that almost sent him to St. Peter himself. He faced the wrath of
disgruntled Roman nobles led by the late Pope Adrian’s nephew Paschal, who
amidst the procession in celebration of the Greater Litanies, attacked him near
the Flamian Gate and the St. Laurence Church. Leo’s opponents charged him with
abuse of power and corruption motivating an uprising that threatened the life
of the Pope. The <i>Liber Pontificalis </i>described
the onslaught:</div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><blockquote>“Without mercy, they cut his clothes off him and attempted cruelly to
pluck out his eyes and totally blind him. They cut off his tongue and left him,
or so they thought, blind and dumb in the middle of the street”</blockquote></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">The attack aimed to make Leo physically unfit to hold the position of
Pope. Pitifully lying in the ground, bleeding and wounded, Pope’s Leo attackers
dragged him to be imprisoned in the Monastery of St. Erasmus. Despite the
brutal attack he miraculously restored his vision and voice. With the help of a
chamberlain named Albinus, the Pope escaped his captors and sought refuge from
his ally Duke Winishi of Spoleto. From there he fled north and towards the
protection of the Charlemagne in Paderborn. After much discussion, Charlemagne
decided to support Leo and ordered a contingent of soldiers, nobles, and
archbishops to escort him back to Rome. The contingent included the Archbishops
of Cologne, Hidebald, Archbishop of Salzburg, and Archbishop of Arn as well as
the Counts Helmogth, Rottecar, and Germar.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Leo and his Frankish entourage made their way back to Rome. Upon
returning to the eternal city, an inquiry looked into the allegations of
corruption and abuse against the Pope in November of 800. The Commission submitted
their conclusion to Charlemagne who personally went to Rome. Their final
verdict declared:</div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><blockquote>“We dare not pass judgment on the apostolic see which is the head of
all God’s churches; it is all of us who are judged by it and its vicar; just as
the custom was of old, it is judged by no one. But as the supreme pontiff has
decreed it, we will obey according to the canons.”</blockquote></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">The judgment of the commission prompted Pope Leo III, “the Vicar of
Christ” to stand in the pulpit and cleared himself of all charges, stating:</div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><blockquote>“I have no knowledge of these false allegations which those Romans who
wickedly persecuted me bring against me, and I know that I have not committed
such crimes.”</blockquote></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">The Pope’s declaration of innocence made the attack unjust and treasonous,
thus, Charlemagne passed the sentence of death to Paschal and his conspirators.
Leo, in an act of mercy, requested for the mitigation of the sentences
of his opponents to exile, which Charlemagne conceded.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><b><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Birth of the Holy Roman Empire</span></b></div></b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">The 799 Uprising against Leo concluded with exiles, the Pope then
contemplated rewarding Charlemagne. His reward created a new political unit
that influenced European politics for centuries. It began with a coronation on
December 25, 800.</div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Pope Leo III displayed his gratitude to Charlemagne for his support and
protection. On December 23, he purged the Frankish King’s sins. Then on
Christmas day 800, as Charlemagne conferred to his son Louis the position of
King of Italy, Leo suddenly honored and crowned Charlemagne as <i>Imperator Romanus</i> – Roman Emperor. Thus,
began the tradition of the Pope having the authority to crown Holy Roman Emperors.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Several reasons laid as the root for the crowning of Holy Roman
Emperor. The crowing benefited both Charlemagne and Leo III in particular and
the papacy and the Frankish Empire in general. Charlemagne’s prestige and
authority skyrocketed with the conferring of the title of Roman Emperor, while for Leo
III it secured the military protection of the greatest power in the region. The
title of <i>Imperator Romanus</i> culminated
the close relation between Rome and the Frankish Empire.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">On the other hand, Charlemagne’s rise as Roman Emperor damaged the
prestige of the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantine. In 797, the Eastern Roman
Empire’s throne fell to a woman, <b><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2021/04/empress-irene-woman-that-built-holy.html">Empress Irene</a></b>. The gender of the Byzantine ruler added to Leo’s justification for
the crowing of a new Roman Empire - since a woman could not hold the title of
Roman Emperor, the Pope considered it vacant and up for grabs. Leo’s crowning
of a new Roman Emperor furthered a rift between Rome and Constantinople which
later reached its crescendo with the Great Schism.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><b><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Pope Leo III and Charlemagne</span></b></div></b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">The crowing of Charlemagne as Roman Emperor, however, made Leo
apparently a junior in the partnership. He had no input or comments in
Charlemagne’s decision to divide his Empire in 806. He also received no request
for authority when Charlemagne directed the religious affairs within his realm.
From 809 to 810, he faced Charlemagne opposition to his policy of appeasement
towards the Eastern Roman Empire by refusing the chanting of the <i>Filioque</i> Clause that maintained the Holy
Trinity which the Orthodox Church of Constantinople rejected. He took no part
in Charlemagne’s decision in 813 to make his son Louis co-Emperor.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Moments of cooperation, nevertheless, existed between the 2 leaders.
They both agreed to fight Adoptionism in Spain. They both agreed to the establishment
of ecclesiastical organizations in Bavaria and Salzburg. They both supported
King Eardulf’s restoration to the Northumbrian throne by condemning the
Archbishop of York Eanbald.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><b><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Later Papacy</span></b></div></b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">On the other hand of his papacy, Pope Leo worked to improve the Papal
State. He acted on Rome’s greatest challenges including the death of his
protector Charlemagne. He continued to work well with the Frankish Empire until
his demise in 816.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Pope Leo III’s secular role as head of the Papal State led to increased revenue from estates much credit to his previous role as treasurer. He
faced several more challenges after the 799 Uprising, including an earthquake
that shook Rome damaging several churches including St. Paul’s church. He then
worked to repair the damages in the city and later on to other major centers
including Ravenna. Then on the coast, the notorious Muslim pirates continued to
ravage shipping and coastal villages along Europe’s Mediterranean coast. He
along with Charlemagne combated piracy along the Italian coast, resulting in the
recapture of Gaeta which the Muslim pirates managed to capture, as well as the
rich and strategic islands of Corsica and Sardinia.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">In 814, Leo’s Roman Emperor Charlemagne passed away. This automatically
emboldened Leo’s enemies to plot against him again. This time, however, Leo
spared no blood and abandoned all mercy towards his opponents, and quickly
ordered their executions. When he faced a rebellion in Campagna, he crushed
this with the support of the Duke of Spoleto. With regards to Charlemagne’s
successor, Emperor Louis the Pious, he maintained a peaceful relationship until
his passing on June 24, 816. Then in 1673, Pope Clement X, with the miraculous
restoration of his eyes and tongue in 799 as the basis, canonized Leo III with
June 12 as his feast day.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><b><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Summing Up</span></b></div></b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Pope Leo III rode a stellar rise as a Pope considering his election as
a break from the tradition of Pontiffs coming from Roman nobility. His background became, however, a reason that erupted to violence that only failed
thanks to the miraculous restoration of his eyes and tongue as well as the
strength of his relationship with the Frankish ruler Charlemagne. Despite appearing
as a junior in the partnership with Charles the Great, he set up a political relationship that influenced European politics for centuries, causing numerous
historical events such as the Great Schism, the Investiture Controversy, the battle between Guelphs and Ghibellines that led to the exile from Florence of
Dante Alighieri and the comically dubbed Bucket Wars between Modena and
Bologna. Through his decision to crown Charlemagne as Roman Emperor, he made
his mark in European history.</div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><br /></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b>See also:</b></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2021/04/how-great-was-charlemagne.html">Charlemagne</a></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2021/04/empress-irene-woman-that-built-holy.html">Empress Irene</a></div></span><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Bibliography:</div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Websites:</div></span></b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">“Leo III, Pope, St.” <i>New Catholic Encyclopedia</i>. Encyclopedia.com
Accessed on March 6, 2021. URL: https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/leo-iii-pope-st </div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. “Saint Leo III.” <i>Encyclopedia
Britannica</i>. Accessed on March 7, 2021. URL: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Leo-III </div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b>General Reference:</b></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Mann, Horace. “Pope St. Leo III.” The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. 9.
New York, New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1910.</div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><br /></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b>Book: </b></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Davis, Raymond (tr.). <i>The Lives of the
Eight-Century Popes (Liber Pontificalis)</i>. Liverpool: Liverpool University
Press, 1992.</div></span></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
Bob Corcuerahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14748111488274035197noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3147004568822447450.post-17475822003946799882021-04-04T00:01:00.003+08:002021-04-09T15:15:01.135+08:00How Great was Charlemagne?<div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="text-align: justify;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQZnpBgQSYXFvzLQzZ0Y2LM5dLpIRQrINybWoDc2tEwIDXRGQnw-dtdOk8ejzTvxCdyeK-PVnDvh_D80hOgBQ9bb0wYKV-LaH523XvvBH6bq2zJ4DgBrZpr48ZlABX6WeGb8SgP1ULsAs/s1460/Karolus+Magnus.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1460" data-original-width="782" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQZnpBgQSYXFvzLQzZ0Y2LM5dLpIRQrINybWoDc2tEwIDXRGQnw-dtdOk8ejzTvxCdyeK-PVnDvh_D80hOgBQ9bb0wYKV-LaH523XvvBH6bq2zJ4DgBrZpr48ZlABX6WeGb8SgP1ULsAs/s320/Karolus+Magnus.jpg" /></a></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><i>Charlemagne or Charles the Great in French became a legendary icon for Europe. Even being dubbed as "Father of Europe," many countries credit him for setting their roots. But what made Charlemagne the Great?</i></div><span><a name='more'></a></span></span></div></span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><b style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></b></div><div style="text-align: left;"><b style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Early Life</span></b></div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Charlemagne, born in 742, was a son of Bertrada of Laon and the first Carolingian king of Francia Peppin the Short. Charlemagne's ancestry included the famous Charles Martel who led the Frankish army into victory against a Muslim army putting a stop to their advance into Europe. His ancestors also held the powerful position of Mayor of the Palace - a position similar to a Prime Minister - for the Merovingian Kings. In 751, with Papal support, Pepin decided to usurp the throne and put an end to the Merovingian dynasty ushering in the Carolingian Dynasty.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Not much has been known regarding the upbringing of the young Charlemagne. As a son of the King, he trained as a warrior mastering different weapons as well as horsemanship. He probably joined his father in campaigns introducing him to the art of war and to his warriors and commanders. He also studied Latin and Greek. He viewed his early education as lacking, thus he strived later in his life to further his literacy along with the whole population.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiy-E3YkvNJOAnf9SFlBuyKPGsPyKwoICyy6VbtSU8IjAIx7mihpxgVxiKR6hPZqfxwsNdHWbV46P6G-OppmjhwJ6HseGXWrd19ERKxC9aQYaOezOqaVP71jfu-E45g2dsvLLGrXf4JhFY/s768/Charlemage+in+the+Left+and+Pepin+the+Short+in+the+Right+%252810th+century+copy+of+a+9th+century+original%2529.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="768" data-original-width="488" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiy-E3YkvNJOAnf9SFlBuyKPGsPyKwoICyy6VbtSU8IjAIx7mihpxgVxiKR6hPZqfxwsNdHWbV46P6G-OppmjhwJ6HseGXWrd19ERKxC9aQYaOezOqaVP71jfu-E45g2dsvLLGrXf4JhFY/w254-h400/Charlemage+in+the+Left+and+Pepin+the+Short+in+the+Right+%252810th+century+copy+of+a+9th+century+original%2529.jpg" width="254" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Charlemagne in the Left and Pepin the Short in the Right <br />(10th-century copy of a 9th-century original)</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;">In 768, Pepin the Short passed away. Under Frankish law, however, the Kingdom would be split for each of the sons of the deceased ruler. As a result, Charlemagne ruled half of Francia while the other by his brother Carloman. Charlemagne and Carloman, however, had a tense relationship and the specter of civil war loomed greatly. In preparation, Charlemagne allied with King Desiderius of the Lombards and sealed it with his marriage to the Lombard leader’s daughter. Luckily for Francia, Carloman passed away in 771. Moreover, Charlemagne maneuvered to disinherit Carloman’s heirs making him the sole ruler of Francia and eliminating civil war. He then mustered the resources of the Kingdom to do his duty as King.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><b style="text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Charlemagne, the Conqueror</span></b></div></b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">As a Frankish ruler, Charlemagne inherited from his father and the preceding Merovingian Kings the tradition of a warrior King. He must fight and win battles to provide plunder and spoils for his warriors. He then went to war against various surrounding Germanic tribes taking their riches and annexing their lands. In 773, when King Desiderius threatened Rome and the Papal States under Pope Adrian I, Charlemagne, a devout and pious Christian, intervened in support of the Papacy ending the alliance forged with the Lombards in 771. Charlemagne won and establish and in 781 established a sub-Kingdom in Italy headed by his son Peppin. Moreover, his victory ensured the Pope of his capability to become Rome’s new defender.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg0sp22yb6SWhneacBtGXR8TXhtSyEFXQma9PMGkuSvSbeQOfcVqnGjPbFaQ6EYIrWoyZPnTvfXqYbu2_kGwHoUV40oRcNuNKfJZo7xNa6juVQ-v_5uiRMvGJdte8AbTQ7qILYrMpD8b6M/s556/Charlemagne+meeting+Pope+Adrian+I+in+772.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="414" data-original-width="556" height="297" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg0sp22yb6SWhneacBtGXR8TXhtSyEFXQma9PMGkuSvSbeQOfcVqnGjPbFaQ6EYIrWoyZPnTvfXqYbu2_kGwHoUV40oRcNuNKfJZo7xNa6juVQ-v_5uiRMvGJdte8AbTQ7qILYrMpD8b6M/w400-h297/Charlemagne+meeting+Pope+Adrian+I+in+772.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Charlemagne meeting Pope Adrian I in 772</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;">After a campaign in the Italian Peninsula, in 778, with the hope of expelling the Muslims from the region, Charlemagne turned his attention to the Iberian Peninsula. This campaign, however, ended in failure and the Frankish army retreated. A setback immortalized in The Song of Roland. In 781, Charlemagne established another sub-kingdom in Aquitaine headed by his son Louis (the future Emperor Louis the Pious).</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">He continued to launch military campaigns throughout the 780s and 790s. In 787, he attacked the Bavarians, then in 791, he began to fight against the Avars in Central Europe following up with another campaign in 795 to 796 that contributed to the weakening of the nomadic people’s hold over Central Europe. On top of these campaigns, he already engaged in conflict with the Saxons starting in 772 and lasted for about 30 years until 804.</span></div><div style="font-size: x-large; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiOMf-Sw9zFy0zfdbiFe3uglvWHQY8TIjxX3e2pG4um46fsa9ZgKb1bSwdAStolF5B2AmYEYUHRMd1-d2szcyCbCpco2Nm7_uIuCme6pex9vSiYV_hH1uQmfjFBBjFd5mdv-gY9c1RlG0Y/s1024/Surrender+of+Saxon+Leader+Widukind+in+785%252C+1840+by+Ary+Scheffer.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="868" data-original-width="1024" height="339" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiOMf-Sw9zFy0zfdbiFe3uglvWHQY8TIjxX3e2pG4um46fsa9ZgKb1bSwdAStolF5B2AmYEYUHRMd1-d2szcyCbCpco2Nm7_uIuCme6pex9vSiYV_hH1uQmfjFBBjFd5mdv-gY9c1RlG0Y/w400-h339/Surrender+of+Saxon+Leader+Widukind+in+785%252C+1840+by+Ary+Scheffer.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Surrender of Saxon Leader Widukind in 785, 1840 by Ary Scheffer</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;">When his military campaigns subsided, Charlemagne controlled a vast empire stretching from the North Sea to the Mediterranean and from the Pyrenees to Bohemia. An Empire dubbed today as the Carolingian Empire.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><b style="text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Crusader King</span></b></div></b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">While the duties of a Frankish King contributed to Charlemagne’s image as a warlord, religion played a role in his conquest. In 751, Christianity or the Papacy rather provided Pepin the Short the legitimacy he needed to overthrow the Merovingian Kings. In addition to legitimacy, it also provided a unifying denominator for the diverse population under the new Carolingian Empire. Lastly, Christianity’s advancement also boosted morale and determination for victory.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;">The conquest of Charlemagne aimed in destroying paganism. A bad side of his reign, thus, emerged. Either voluntary or sword, his army converted as many pagans as possible. The Massacre of Verden in 782, where 4,500 Saxons said to have perished for their failure to convert to Christianism, exemplified Charlemagne’s brutal Christianization.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;">On the other hand, in times of peace, Charlemagne provided full support to the establishment of the church as part of the fabric of the Carolingian Empire. He provided money and privileges to various churches and monasteries. He provided immunity grants allowing abbots and bishops to rule their estates freely and without intervention from local counts. Furthermore, clerics also manned key government positions and even contributed to the function of the monarchy. For example, the Chancery that recorded and prepared court documents mostly taken by ecclesiastics. Besides, clerics served as agents and emissaries of the crown. The entanglement of Church and State, thus, existed during Charlemagne’s reign.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><b style="text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Education and Culture</span></b></div></b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">While Charlemagne made a name for himself as a conqueror, he also cultivated education and culture with tremendous effort. He welcomed intellectuals in his court promoting the so-called Carolingian Renaissance – a movement to revitalized arts, literature, and education that disintegrated after the fall of Rome.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Under his patronage, many intellectuals from various places, such as Italy, Spain, Ireland, and England, came to his favorite residence in Aachen. For instance, he employed Einhard to write his biography called the <i>Vita Karoli Magni</i> or Life of Charlemagne that provided accounts of the reign of the Frankish ruler. Paul the Deacon, Paulinus of Aquileia, Peter of Pisa, and especially Alcuin all went to the court of Charlemagne. Charlemagne’s patronage made Alcuin dubbed Aachen as the “new Athens” showing confidence in the rise of intellectualism in the city.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhkEmKqCl9Jl8yLQx8WOFRlMCu7DXDgxqr58ty-beQOO5jf9EV_d6G010pMlnOLkn3wQ2uZniqTfABQlIGlu9_Q3ek9jNt6CmL8wQBZggsTHTMHm1COCUhsZcsxaJVwHTPLexahFOO5XEw/s477/Alcuin+in+the+Middle.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="477" data-original-width="465" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhkEmKqCl9Jl8yLQx8WOFRlMCu7DXDgxqr58ty-beQOO5jf9EV_d6G010pMlnOLkn3wQ2uZniqTfABQlIGlu9_Q3ek9jNt6CmL8wQBZggsTHTMHm1COCUhsZcsxaJVwHTPLexahFOO5XEw/s320/Alcuin+in+the+Middle.jpg" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Alcuin in the Middle</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;">The Frankish ruler also revitalized education. The teaching of Latin spread assisted by a manual on the language written by various scholars in Charlemagne’s court. The Carolingian minuscule became a prominent writing system for Europe and became the foundation for the modern alphabet. Record keeping and copying of important texts expanded with the establishment of royal scriptoriums.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Aachen grew into an educational hub. Though a Frankish king ruled from a saddle and a capital absent, Aachen served as Charlemagne’s favorite residence, thus it embodied the monarch’s ambitions. The city saw the rise of a palace with a school for higher learning. Libraries and scriptoria also had been constructed. Following Aachen, schools and scriptoria also rose up across the Empire promoting literacy and learning.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Charlemagne’s reign saw the revival of learning. Even in his old age, Charlemagne studied and hoped his people to follow suit. His patronage of intellectuals and education allowed him to create a diverse image of Charlemagne, from a warlord to a patron of learning.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><b style="text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Administration</span></b></div></b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">The Christian value of compassion made Charlemagne devoted to the welfare of his subjects. He strived to manage a vast empire despite the limitations in infrastructure and communications. He maintained control of the monarchy and ensured discipline among his officials.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Charlemagne divided his realm into different counties and appointed counts for each to administer justice, collect taxes, oversee conscription, and maintenance of order. Each of the counts answered to Charlemagne and faced dismissal on the ruler’s decision. For border territories, however, Charlemagne formed special counties headed by <i>grafs</i> or margraves responsible also for the defense of the territory. To serve as judges and law experts, Charlemagne also appointed <i>scabini</i> to counties.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;">In 802, Charlemagne began to appoint royal agents called <i>missi dominici</i>. The agents proclaim Charlemagne’s decrees, investigate local officials, and correct abuses and injustices made by counts. Each <i>missi dominici</i> oversaw districts called <i>missaticae</i> with each being visited by 2 <i>missi dominici</i> annually. By 812, however, the number of rounds increased from 1 to 4 annually. Once again, clerics mostly served this role.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Although far from being a legislature and democratic, Charlemagne also convened an assembly of clerics, trusted counselors, military commanders, and nobles known as Mayfield. The body served as a venue to voice suggestions and problems that faced the Empire. It also became a source for Charlemagne of information regarding the realm. However, it lacked the authority to force the ruler to act.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><b style="text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Economic Affairs</span></b></div></b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">To improve the living standards of his subject, Charlemagne organized and improved the economic situation of his realm. Through infrastructure, standardization, and reform, an economic revival began after a slump that began when Rome fell.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Charlemagne paid attention to his finance. He understood the importance of properly managing resources to support his reign. In 802, he ordered a strict inventory and monitoring of income and expenses of all crown lands under the <i>Capitulare de Villis</i>. Being the largest landowner in the Kingdom, Charlemagne aimed to monitor his sources of income well.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;">The Frankish ruler also revitalized trade through series of measures. He ordered the construction of a canal now known as <i>Fossa Carolina</i> connecting the Rhine and Danube rivers between Rednitz and Altmuhl for faster riverine transportation of goods. He also standardized weights and measurements and protected merchants traversing the Empire. He continued his father’s monetary reform, abandoning gold in favor of silver as the supply of the former dwindled. He also introduced the <i>livre carolinienne</i> where a pound of silver made 20 <i>sous </i>with each <i>sous</i> composed of 12 deniers. The use of <i>livre carolinienne</i> remained the basis of accounting in France until the French Revolution.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Finally, Charlemagne wanted to ensure the supply of food for the realm. He promoted an increase in agricultural productivity. In times of famine, he decreed a ban on the export of corn.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Overall, Charlemagne’s effort allowed the economy to recover even by little from the collapse of the Roman Empire.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><b style="text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Diplomacy</span></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi0QyjpnCAk3YKopiLWHpFq08n97Ma-n5iIhXihpvEAFUTBnfXExmPNE3ybRFov3M1WZwu4h4qjDsXPZFvyMBgjNNe1c8He-hZOvzDTmp4hs-jwhYaGII6_hQx7RRsSh_C-6hyr4mKaWOw/s765/Harun+al-Rashid+receiving+a+delegation+of+Charlemagne+in+Baghdad%252C+by+Julius+K%25C3%25B6ckert+%25281864%2529.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="477" data-original-width="765" height="250" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi0QyjpnCAk3YKopiLWHpFq08n97Ma-n5iIhXihpvEAFUTBnfXExmPNE3ybRFov3M1WZwu4h4qjDsXPZFvyMBgjNNe1c8He-hZOvzDTmp4hs-jwhYaGII6_hQx7RRsSh_C-6hyr4mKaWOw/w400-h250/Harun+al-Rashid+receiving+a+delegation+of+Charlemagne+in+Baghdad%252C+by+Julius+K%25C3%25B6ckert+%25281864%2529.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Harun al-Rashid receiving a delegation of Charlemagne in Baghdad, <br />by Julius Köckert (1864)</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></span></b></div></b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Despite being constantly at war for 30 years of his reign, Charlemagne, later on, fostered stable relations with neighboring countries and cultures, from Saxons to Avars and even towards the Islamic world. The sending of envoys by Charlemagne to Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid became a diplomatic victory for both rulers displaying peaceful relations between 2 different worlds.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><b style="text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">The Emperor of the Romans</span></b></div></b><span style="font-family: arial; text-align: justify;"><div style="font-size: x-large; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Charlemagne established an Empire at the heart of Europe. For his military strength and piety towards Christianity, the Papacy awarded him glory remembering the past and dominated the future of Europe for about a millennium.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="font-size: x-large; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgUX0jQ4f-hextsSrIkvCApCnjx8VEY7QcmJeUKTgPFKZgSPLHkd2zK0Hy_Ox_YvY25l1WhnFeqWsMG8e1GkRup8f_A_Is_z0HljhUY7vcbfjdt6rfo2aBmwXGEsvTphtofkjmZuuXSHTE/s1280/Imperial+Coronation+of+Charlemagne%252C+by+Friedrich+Kaulbach%252C+1861.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="955" data-original-width="1280" height="478" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgUX0jQ4f-hextsSrIkvCApCnjx8VEY7QcmJeUKTgPFKZgSPLHkd2zK0Hy_Ox_YvY25l1WhnFeqWsMG8e1GkRup8f_A_Is_z0HljhUY7vcbfjdt6rfo2aBmwXGEsvTphtofkjmZuuXSHTE/w640-h478/Imperial+Coronation+of+Charlemagne%252C+by+Friedrich+Kaulbach%252C+1861.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Imperial Coronation of Charlemagne, <br />by Friedrich Kaulbach, 1861</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;">After supporting <b><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2021/04/who-was-pope-leo-iii.html">Pope Leo III</a></b>, the Bishop of Rome rewarded Charlemagne with an illustrious title in St. Peter’s Basilica on Christmas day 800. Charlemagne, already the King of the Franks and Lombards, added to his titles <i>Imperator Romanorum </i>or<i> </i>Emperor of the Romans invoking the once great Roman Empire's glory. The decision of conferring the title to Charlemagne came as a response to the growing conflict with the Bulgars and Arabs of the Emperor of the Romans sitting in the east – in Constantinople. The prioritization of the Byzantine military towards threats in the Balkans and Anatolia led to the neglect of their military commitments in Italy. This retreat made the Pope look elsewhere for a defender which the Frankish juggernaut filled. And in 799 when Leo suffered from violence in the hands of the nephew of his predecessor and his cohort, Charlemagne backed him and orchestrated his return to the Eternal City. In other words, he owed Charlemagne his restoration. Then, a woman, <b><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2021/04/empress-irene-woman-that-built-holy.html">Empress Irene</a></b>, took over as the head of the Eastern Roman Empire in 791. For the Pope, a woman to hold the title might as well be a vacant position. For these factors, Charlemagne received the title of Emperor of Romans which later evolved to become Holy Roman Emperor.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Charlemagne coronation not just began a title that Germans fought over for the next millennium, but also traditions stayed and defined the ceremony. For instance, the anointing of the hand during Charlemagne’s coronation as well as the addition of “by the grace of God” that justified the divine rights of monarchs began to be traditions in coronations over centuries. Finally, the Oath of Allegiance by his subject that went out of fashion during the Merovingian Kings returned.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><b style="text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Demise</span></b></div></b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Charlemagne enjoyed his new title for another 14 years. During that period, Charlemagne began to prepare for succession when his time comes to an end. In 813, he made his son Louis his co-Emperor and by 814, he passed away. His remains laid to rest in Aachen Cathedral. Charlemagne’s Empire, however, failed to remain for a century facing division with the Treaty of Verdun in 848. In 1165, many revered his glory days and deeds that in 1165 he was canonized to a saint, but the political factors of the canonization led to its void in 1179.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><b style="text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Summing Up</span></b></div></b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Charlemagne established an Empire that had not yet been seen since the fall of Rome. He achieved many accomplishments in military affairs, religion, culture, economics, and education that he earned the epithet of the Great. Nevertheless, his achievements, especially in the military and religion should be equally remembered. He expanded his realm and church through coercion and violence. Greatness thus has a price. Charlemagne paid for it, despite this, his reign made a profound effect that built the foundation of modern Europe from its government, religion, and culture allowing him to be dubbed as the “Father of Europe.”</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><b>See also:</b></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2021/04/who-was-pope-leo-iii.html">Leo III</a></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2021/04/empress-irene-woman-that-built-holy.html">Empress Irene of Athens</a></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Bibliography:</div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Book:</div></span></b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Gwatkin, H.M. & J.P. Whitney (eds.). T<i>he Cambridge Medieval History, Volume II</i>. London: Cambridge University Press, 1913.</div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b>Website:</b> </div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><div>“10000 years of economy.” <i>CITECO</i>. Accessed on February 27, 2021. URL: https://www.citeco.fr/10000-years-history-economics/antiquity-to-middle-ages/charlemagne-s-monetary-reforms </div><div><br /></div><div>“Charlemagne’s Reforms.” <i>Lumen Learning</i>. Accessed on February 27, 2021. URL: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldhistory/chapter/charlemagnes-reforms/</div></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Cantor, Norman. “What Europe Can Learn from Charlemagne?” <i>Wall Street Journal</i>. Accessed on February 27, 2021. URL: https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB915568226969614000 </div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">History.com Editors. “Charlemagne.” <i>HISTORY</i>. Accessed on February 27, 2021. URL: https://www.history.com/topics/middle-ages/charlemagne </div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Sullivan, R.E. “Charlemagne.” <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>. Accessed on February 27, 2021. URL: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charlemagne </div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: justify;">x</div></span>Bob Corcuerahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14748111488274035197noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3147004568822447450.post-36724909147814861312021-02-28T21:39:00.000+08:002021-02-28T21:39:54.837+08:00St. Vaclav (Wenceslas) and Boleslav the Cruel<div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: left;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-family: arial; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg4xcEyDUEpjUs-89bEfKfMwjNiU_RCwvT_oNznjKEqJKMj6LjVrzjVAlS_Zmi8GK0lMDl-GOKhqbvMSJgNsu9Z8viG-OQMn-XDT4i4vkOl6MXXSTeStEaX2ikuaf00l0K7dtnwpTnN1Mc/s618/Vaclav+fleeing+Boleslav+weilding+the+sword%252C+Gumpold+Codex.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="351" data-original-width="618" height="364" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg4xcEyDUEpjUs-89bEfKfMwjNiU_RCwvT_oNznjKEqJKMj6LjVrzjVAlS_Zmi8GK0lMDl-GOKhqbvMSJgNsu9Z8viG-OQMn-XDT4i4vkOl6MXXSTeStEaX2ikuaf00l0K7dtnwpTnN1Mc/w640-h364/Vaclav+fleeing+Boleslav+weilding+the+sword%252C+Gumpold+Codex.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><span style="font-family: arial;"><i>A story to the likes of Cain and Abel, the brothers St. Vaclav and
Boleslav the Cruel created a legend combining fratricide, foreign invasion, and
polarizing opinion on religion that established the power of the Premyslid
Dynasty over Bohemia.</i></span><span style="font-family: arial;"><a name='more'></a></span></span></div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><br /></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b>Good King Wenceslas</b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">“Good King Wenceslas looked out, on the Feast of St. Stephen,” said the 1853 Christmas Carol that immortalized the Bohemia Duke. St. Vaclav or in
Latin Wenceslas. He came to the world in 903 in Stochov on the outskirts of
Prague and a son of Duke Vratislav of Bohemia and Dragomira a member of an
influential Bohemia clan. He also had for his grandparents the first documented
<a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2021/01/the-premyslid-dynasty-of-bohemia.html"><b>Presmyslid</b></a> Duke Borivoj and his wife the future St. Ludmilla. The future Saint Vaclav
grew under the wings of his grandmother Ludmilla and from her castle of Tetin.
He received education on the Christian faith and became fluent in Slavonic and
Latin language. His education made him one of the most literate leaders in
Europe with his father’s passing in 921.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><b>Duke of Bohemia</b></div></b><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Good King Wenceslas in fact on the age of 13 ruled as Duke of Bohemia
in 921. He inherited a Duchy divided politically and religiously. In political
matters, Bohemia faced the choice of supporting a faction fighting for the
throne of East Francia, while in religious affairs, he faced the divide between
Christianity and Paganism still prevailing among Bohemians.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">The matter on the throne of the Kingdom of East Francia threatened the
political independence of Bohemia. After the death of Charlemagne in 814, his
successors failed to maintain the unity of the Holy Roman Empire. The 843
Treaty of Verdun made the situation certain as the Holy Roman Empire split into
3 Kingdoms: West Francia, Middle Francia, and East Francia. East Francia
bordered Bohemia and its political instability poured over to the latter. Fight
between King Henry the Fowler and Duke Arnulf of Bavaria forced Bohemia to
choose between the 2 factions, choosing the wrong side potentially placed
Bohemia’s future in crisis.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">On the other hand, the rise of Christianity also spelled a division
among the people of Bohemia. Many in Bohemia looked upon Christianity as a
threat to their traditions. Part of the nobility only accepted Christianity for
political reasons whether for advantages or fear of death and annihilation.
Borivoj and Ludmilla accepted the faith whole-heartedly while Vaclav’s mother
Dragomira only became a Christian by name and continued to support pagan
elements within the country. This divide alongside the issue of East
Francia became challenges defining the rule of Vaclav.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Only 13 with his father’s demise, Vaclav required a regency which his
mother Dragomira took responsibility for. Anti-Christian factions then moved to
undermine the young Duke attacking his capability fitting more for priesthood
rather than governance. Tensions between Ludmilla and Dragomira further
escalated on the issue of recognizing the rule of King Henry the Fowler of East
Francia. Ludmilla’s faction then tried to convince the young Vaclav to plot
against his mother. However, by September 921, Dragomira discovered the plot
and attacked first. She ordered the assassination of Ludmilla on September 15,
921 with 2 nobles or servants strangling the devout Dowager to death. The tragic
death of Ludmilla turned her into a martyr and eventually a Saint. The
assassination further backfired as the violent act led to Dragomira’s fall from
power. In 922, Vaclav began his direct rule ordering his mother’s exile until
925.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">As a Duke, Vaclav showed tremendous devotion to his Christian faith. He
vowed chastity and frugality. Moreover, he allowed to continued works of the
German missionaries in the Duchy. His blunt support for proselytizing of
Christianity failed to sit well with the pagans in the court. More so felt the
same with the Duke’s foreign policy.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Vaclav decided to recognize the suzerainty of the Saxon King of
Francia, Henry I the Fowler, in 929. He intended to maintain peace by bending
the knee to Henry and paying the tribute of 500 silver pieces and 120 oxen.
According to legend, the 2 leaders met and fostered mutual respect for their
piety. Vaclav earned so much of Henry’s admiration that the Francian King granted
the Bohemian Duke’s request for the arm of St. Vitus which he later interred to
a Church dedicated to the relic. Many proud nobles scoffed over the
subservience of Vaclav and began to plot.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Within the Christian factions that initially supported Vaclav, dissension also festered with the Duke’s reforms. The trigger of discontent laid in
Vaclav’s decision to adopt the Latin liturgy at the expense of the vernacular
Slavonic Liturgy introduced by Sts. Methodius and Constantine. The act stroke a
core to Bohemian identity. Dissatisfaction also came from Vaclav’s reliance on the clergy for counsel rather than his lords. Vaclav’s growing centralization of
power and weakening of the local Lords made things worst. Thus, a combination
of cultural, religious, and political issues began to build up against Vaclav.
Many of those dissatisfied rallied behind his brother Boleslav for support and
even a substitute.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b>The Premyslid Cain</b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Born in 908 or 910, Boleslav was the younger brother of Vaclav. He also
grew up educated by Ludmilla but developed a closer relationship with his mother
Dragomira. As a result, he became a rallying point for pagans within the
Bohemian court.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Either in 929 or 935, Bohemian lords approached him and hoped for his
support against his brother Vaclav. On September 28, Boleslav invited Vaclav to
his castle in Stara Boleslav to celebrate the feast of St. Cosmas and Damian.
As Vaclav made his way to mass, Boleslav’s supporters attacked the Duke’s
retinue. Amidst the melee, Vaclav fell and said to have uttered for his last
words, “May God forgive you, brother.” Whether fully involved or only
complicit, Boleslav shouldered the responsibility and became known as Boleslav
the Cruel. On the other hand, Duke Vaclav’s virtues and devotion to
Christianity made his fall a martyrdom and considered many Bohemians considered
him a saint and by 984 the patron saint of Bohemia.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">After the bloody transition from Vaclav to Boleslav, the new Duke hoped
to heal the wounds. Boleslav repented over the events. As he heard stories of
miracles on the tomb of his late brother in 932, he ordered his brother’s
remains to be interred to the new Church of St. Vitus. He also allowed for
Christian missionaries to continue their works. He supported the establishment
of the Benedictine convent of St. George, which became the necropolis for the
Presmyslid Dynasty. Later in his life, he worked for the establishment of an
independent Bishopric in Prague which only came to fruition a year after his
passing in 973.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Despite being labeled “the Cruel,” Boleslav proved to be an effective
and strong Duke. He established Prague as the center of government and strengthened the central authority of the Presmyslid through military campaigns over powerful
autonomous Bohemian nobility. He built castles and churches as administrative,
economic, and military centers across Bohemia – a symbolic establishment of
central authority over the lands. Thus, clerics and magistrates that manned
these castles and churches served as agents of the duke. He expanded the
finance of the Premyslid by collecting a tax to all freemen called the peace
tax. Moreover, the rise of Rus principalities opened trade routes north that
greatly benefited Bohemia. He imposed customs/protection fees of 1% to
merchants to cash in the rising trade. He fostered mercantile activities further
by issuing the Bohemian <i>denarii</i> based on the Bavarian model. By the end of his
reign, Prague grew wealthy and popular for the trade of fur, slaves, and tin as
stated by the Arab traveler Ibrahim ibn Jakub. The filing of the coffers
allowed Boleslav to build his “great guard” composed of several thousands of
men that served as the Premyslid’s armed wing. His “great guard” allowed him to
expand his dominion over Moravia, Silesia, and modern day Slovakia.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">In diplomacy, he continued his brother’s policy of peace with the Kings
of East Francia. He recognized the rule and overlordship of the future Holy
Roman Emperor Otto I. For his fealty, he exercised extreme autonomy and absence
of interference from Otto I. Relations further strengthened when Bohemia joined
Otto’s coalition forces to fight the Magyars in 955 in the historical battle of
Lechfeld.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">In other affairs, he established blood relations with the Piast Dynasty
of Poland by marrying Dubrawka, daughter of Duke Mieszko I of Poland.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b>Demise</b></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Boleslav passed away in 972 to his son who ruled as Boleslav II.
Boleslav II continued his father’s policy of evangelization and loyalty towards
the Holy Roman Emperors. The Premyslid rule cemented in Bohemia and lasted
until its extinction in 1306.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b>Summing Up</b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">The reigns of St. Vaclav and Boleslav cemented Premsylid rule in
Medieval Age and engrained in Czech history for posterity. The sainthood of
Vaclav created a legend that became a subject of embellishment and mythmaking.
Nevertheless, it elevated the status of the Premyslid as a divinely ordained
house that provided a justification for their rule over Bohemia. St. Vaclav
became a symbol of protection for the Czech people. The square and his monument
became sacred ground for resistance against foreign intervention. Boleslav,
on the other, despite his bloody ascension strengthened the Bohemian state with
centralization. It allowed Bohemia to survive and thrived until it became a
Kingdom and great power by the end of the 13th century.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b>See also:</b><br /><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2021/01/the-premyslid-dynasty-of-bohemia.html">Premyslid Dynasty</a></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b>Bibliography:</b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b>Websites:</b></div><div style="text-align: justify;">"Saint Wenceslaus." <i>Franciscan Media</i>. Accessed on February 13, 2021. URL: https://www.franciscanmedia.org/saint-of-the-day/saint-wenceslaus </div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">"Wenceslas." <i>Encyclopedia of World Biography</i>. Encyclopedia.com. Accessed on February 13, 2021. URL: https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/history/czech-and-slovak-history-biographies/saint-wenceslaus </div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. "Wenceslas I." <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>. Accessed on February 13, 2021. URL: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Wenceslas-I-prince-of-Bohemia </div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. "Boleslav I." <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>. Accessed on February 13, 2021. URL: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Boleslav-I </div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b>Books:</b></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Agnes, Hugh LeCaine. <i>The Czechs and the Lands of the Bohemian Crown</i>. Stanford, California: Hoover Institution Press, 2004.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Cornej, Petr & Jiri Polorny. <i>A Brief History of the Czech Lands</i>. Prague: Prah Press, 2003.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Mahoney, William. <i>The History of the Czech Republic and Slovakia</i>. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood Press, 2011.</div></span></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p>Bob Corcuerahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14748111488274035197noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3147004568822447450.post-36135306988224344342021-01-30T16:11:00.002+08:002021-02-13T16:44:35.117+08:00Who was King Premsyl Ottokar II?<div style="text-align: left;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">“Rolls to
the ocean: Ottokar his name:<br /></span></i></div><i><div style="text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Who in his
swaddling clothes was of more worth</span></i></div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Than Wenceslaus
his son, a bearded man,</span></i></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Pampered
with rank luxuriousness and ease.”</span></i></div></span></i></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">- Canto VII in Dante's Purgatorio</span></i></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></i></div><div style="text-align: left;"><div style="text-align: center;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjzHiXtEAEmrsBonHJLcDzUUw3mS9BxJMe_MHMEjDiVAvLMbWDquBquORb9IfAc97a_t3rUZnNq3h-54krkLNwwUZwBUWtqLiEkeLWF3PtqE4uoqLaUANwdVSwkFYVnEFvGK9LMFTCfntg/s1024/P%25C5%2599emysl+Otakar+II+-+The+Union+of+Slavic+Dynasties.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="870" data-original-width="1024" height="544" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjzHiXtEAEmrsBonHJLcDzUUw3mS9BxJMe_MHMEjDiVAvLMbWDquBquORb9IfAc97a_t3rUZnNq3h-54krkLNwwUZwBUWtqLiEkeLWF3PtqE4uoqLaUANwdVSwkFYVnEFvGK9LMFTCfntg/w640-h544/P%25C5%2599emysl+Otakar+II+-+The+Union+of+Slavic+Dynasties.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;">In 1278, a
King laid dying on the battlefield with him passed away the hopes of a Bohemian
Empire covering much of central Europe and all the way down to the Adriatic
Sea. King Premysl Ottokar II built an empire by seizing opportunities from
deaths and marriages. Nevertheless, his luck finally ran out in face of a
growing ambitious house that came to dominate the region – the Habsburgs.</span></span></div></div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span><a name='more'></a></span></div></span><b><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Early Life</span></b></div></b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Born in 1230,
he was the son of King Wenceslas I of Bohemia. Nothing much has been known about
his childhood. In 1247, his older brother and heir to the Bohemian throne
Vladislav passed away pushing him on top of the line of succession. From July
1848 until November 1249, however, Ottokar II joined a faction of discontented
nobles in rebelling against his father crowning himself the monarch and earning
the title “Younger King.” Winds, however, changed direction and his father
launched a counterattack that resulted at the end of the rebellion. Ottokar
landed in a prison, but with a charming personality and with opportunity for
expansion arising, he got out.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">In November
1251, the Austrian nobles elected Ottokar as their new duke. Back in 1246,
Gertrude, a member of the extinct Babenburg Family of the Duchy of Austria
married Vladislav, Ottokar’s brother, tying up the Duchy to Bohemia. Thus,
Ottokar became a candidate and won. To strengthen his hold over Austria,
Ottokar married Margaret of Austria in 1252, sister of the late Duke Frederick
II of Austria.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Following
his ascension as Duke, in September 1253, his father passed away allowing him
to succeed as King of Bohemia.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><b><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Domestic Rule</span></b></div></b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Ottokar
inherited a growing Kingdom. Indeed, the development of the silver mines of
Jihlava during the reign of King Wenceslas provided Ottokar the capital to
finance the strengthening of the crown.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">He curbed
the powers of the nobility by establishing over 50 towns in his domains, which
included Budějovice, Písek, and Ústí. He founded cities along the ancient route
called the Trstenice Path that connected major cities and towns of Prague, Olomutz,
and Brno. He also founded towns and cities along the frontier with Hungary to provide
the first line of defense. The establishment of towns allowed the King to obtain
enclaves under his supervision within the domains of his usually autonomous and
sometimes rebellious nobles. The town also provided income for the crown, in
exchange he gave them liberal charters, which included the right to brew their
own beer.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Besides
freedom to cities, Ottokar also showed tolerance towards Jews which Europe
viewed with scorn during those days. He provided protection of properties of Jewish
as well as German immigrants who provided additional capital and skills to the
economy. He gave them the freedom to worship and observe their religious
holidays.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Ottokar,
moreover, provided a rule of law and a justice system where he appointed judges
and established courts in towns and cities. It witnessed the establishment of
the Court of the King’s Bench that oversaw trials and litigations. The compilation
of the <i>Zemske Desky</i> which became a
major source of jurisprudence and law in Bohemia began.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Finally,
other than towns, the construction of castles became a symbol of Ottokar’s and
Bohemia’s wealth. New castles dominated landscapes of the Bohemia and Austria.
These included Orlik Castle, Krivoklat Castle, and finally the Hofburg Palace
in Vienna. Also, Ottokar stamped his name over the construction of the
Monastery in Trnova Koruna (now Zlata Koruna) in 1263.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Building
from domestic policies, Ottokar embarked on an aggressive foreign policy aimed
in expanding the domains of the <b><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2021/01/the-premyslid-dynasty-of-bohemia.html">Premyslid Dynasty</a></b>.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><b><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Foreign Affairs</span></b></div></b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Much known
about the reign of Ottokar II laid in his diplomacy and war. With sparkling
silver mines, he enticed lords to his will and sphere of influence, but his
expansion brought him many enemies that came to challenge his rule. And in a
volatile era, he found himself on the brink of glory only to find out a path to
the abyss.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">In 1254,
Ottokar II planned to expand Bohemian influence in the Baltics by supporting
the Teutonic Knights in their crusade in Prussia. He went to the region and
campaigned along with the religious order against the pagans. In honor of his
contributions, the Teutonic Knights named Konigsberg in Ottokar’s honor. 10 years
later, in 1266, he once again supported another crusade against the pagan
Lithuanians. He even planned to establish dominion in the region, but lack of
papal approval scrapped the plan.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">After
building his reputations and strengthening relations with the papacy, he earned
the confidence to revive a dispute with Hungary over Styria. In 1260, he
instigated Styrian nobles to rebel against the rule of King Bela IV of Hungary.
The decisive battle of Kressenbrunn witnessed a Bohemian victory and Styria
fell to Ottokar. Moreover, the battle also inflicted heavy losses over the
Hungarians and the Kingdom stood within Ottokar’s reach. He, however,
disregarded any conquest of Hungary writing to Pope Alexander IV:</div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><blockquote>Although
the general opinion was that we might extend our authority over Hungary, yet we
thought it better to retain a good friend and neighbor, than to destroy him by
further hostility; and as we hoped that a reconciliation might lead to an
intimate friendship with our next relative, so we preferred to form a friendly
alliance with him, inasmuch as the waste, and debilitation of so great a
kingdom might easily facilitate an inroad of the Tatars against him and against
ourselves.</blockquote></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">The threat
of Tatar invasion worried Ottokar and decided to make Hungary a buffer state.
Thus, the Hungarians lived to fight another day. To seal the peace with a
marriage. Ottokar divorced his wife Margaret of Austria whom he had no children
and through the grounds that his Babenberg wife took the vows of a nun after
the death of Vladislav and before their marriage. The annulment allowed Ottokar
to marry Bela IV’s granddaughter Kunigunda of Slavonia. Together the marriage
resulted in the birth of the future <b><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2021/01/who-was-vaclav-ii-wenceslas-ii-of.html">Vaclav II</a></b>.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">In 1269,
Ottokar received more lands south of Austria. A distant relative with Premyslid
ties, Ulrich III, Duke of Carinthia passed away. The late Duke bestowed his
domains of Carinthia and the neighboring Carniola and Istria to Ottokar II.
When in 1271, the Pope sanctioned the annexation, Ottokar ruled over lands from
Moravia and Bohemia south towards the Adriatic Sea. Ottokar thus ruled over an
Empire and he stood as the most powerful lord within the amalgamation called
the Holy Roman Empire.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Much of
Ottokar’s success laid in his wealth. The silver mines of Jihlava made Bohemia
one of the most prosperous and influential Kingdom in Europe. The Lords of
newly acquired lands expected vast economic benefits from Bohemia and thus
welcomed Ottokar as their overlord. In turn, Ottokar grew confident for his
next target, the title of King of Germany otherwise known as the ruler of the Holy
Roman Empire.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><b><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Ottokar and the Rise of the Habsburgs</span></b></div></b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">In 1272, the
reigning King of the Germans Richard of Cornwall passed away signaling another election
of a successor. Electors of the Empire had the choice between 4 candidates:
Count Louis the Strong of Palatine, Siegfried of Anhalt, Rudolf von Habsburg of
Aargau and finally Premysl Ottokar II of Bohemia. Ottokar believed the election
to be a mere formality and his victory assured. However, news from the elections
gravely disappointed him. The victory went to a rising Duke Rudolf von Habsburg
of Aargau.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Outraged and
embittered, the Bohemian King lashed out with protest regarding the election to
Pope Gregory, who held the power of ratifying or rejecting the elections.
Despite his support to numerous crusade and recognition of the power of the
Papacy, Ottokar further descended into fury when the Pope sided with Rudolf. It
turned out, in exchange for Rudolf’s renunciation of claims in the Italian
Peninsula, he would receive Rome’s backing.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">For Ottokar,
his recent expansion and success played a key role in his defeat. The Balance
of Power stood against Ottokar’s ambitions. He grew too powerful in the eyes of
the Electors and the Papacy. Rather than glittering silver, the King of Iron
and Gold inspired fear of a great hegemony that many Lords and the Pope felt.
Thus, they chose to side with a powerful Lord, but not too powerful, in the form of
Rudolf beginning the rise to power of the Habsburg Dynasty.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">The election
of Rudolf and Ottokar’s defeat marked a downhill for the Kingdom of Bohemia and
the Premysl Dynasty. In 1274, the Diet of Regensburg convened where King Rudolf
resumed possession of all lands belonging to the Crown before the
ex-communication of Emperor Frederick II. Each vassal of the Empire must then
claim their fiefs within a year or forfeit them. Then, the Diet published a
resolution that demanded the King of Bohemia to claim or receive his
investiture within the year of Rudolf’s coronation or forfeit his domains. The
resolution in essence called for Ottokar to accept his election defeat and bend
the knee. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Rudolf crowned
in 1275 and by 1276, Ottokar refused to submit to Rudolf. The German King, as a
result, banned him and brought the Empire’s might against Bohemia. Austrian and
Bohemian nobles then began to rebel. Ottokar faced a massive invasion losing
all his domains outside of Bohemia and Moravia. Austria, Styria, Carinthia,
Carniola, and Istria all fell. By November 1276, he had no choice but to sign
the Treaty of Vienna that left him only Bohemia and Moravia. Despite the
massive defeat, he swore for vengeance and plotted a re-conquest of his lost territories.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><b><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Demise</span></b></div></b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">For 2 years,
Ottokar rebuilt his might and prepared once again to retake Austria. Leading
his army personally, he marched south towards the site of his famous victory in
Kressenbrun in 1560. However, on August 26, 1278, he met the coalition forces
of the Empire and Hungary in Marchefeld near the village of Durnkrut. In the
vicious melee, Ottokar fell in battle. Trampled by his enemies, the Bohemian
Empire he built laid waste. In its wake, Bohemia fell at the mercy of Rudolf
and his crown passed to his child <b><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2021/01/who-was-vaclav-ii-wenceslas-ii-of.html">Vaclav II</a></b>. Ottokar, nevertheless, earned
the respect of many rulers. Dante himself described Ottokar as one of the great
Christian rulers.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><div style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Summing Up</span></b></div><div style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;">Ottokar II brought about the apex of Premyslid
power. He built an empire by taking advantage of family ties and deaths. His
success, however, turned against him and his failure to recognize and going up
against the balance of power cost him everything including his life.
Nevertheless, the hope of a vast Premyslid domain continued with his successor
and son – Vaclav II.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b>See also:</b></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2021/01/the-premyslid-dynasty-of-bohemia.html">Premyslid Dynasty</a></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2021/01/who-was-vaclav-ii-wenceslas-ii-of.html">Vaclav II</a></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b>Bibliography:</b></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b>Websites:</b></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;">Burn, Tracy. "Premysl Otakar II: The Iron and Golden King." Private Prague Guide. Accessed on January 30, 2021. URL: </span></span><span style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">https://www.private-prague-guide.com/article/premysl-otakar-ii-the-iron-and-golden-king/</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b><br /></b></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;">Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. "Otokar II." Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed on January 30, 2021. URL: </span></span><span style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">https://www.britannica.com/biography/Otakar-II</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b><br /></b></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b>Books:</b></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;">Gutkind, E.A. Urban Development in East-Central Europe: Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary. New York, New York: The Free Press, 1972.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;">Mahoney, William. The History of the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood Press, 2011.</span></span></div></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
Bob Corcuerahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14748111488274035197noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3147004568822447450.post-62468426607966084982021-01-22T21:02:00.002+08:002021-02-13T16:45:42.133+08:00Who was Vaclav II (Wenceslas II) of Bohemia?<div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: left;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgBxHG82zkueOQBTk6B_VvBu_T6j_7milxTBcb0LDa3bWbcu0R4OFcq4xWUqnWj86S6369aIXp7psKLKdsuj0fj6CWxWaNg_0AKd7iQNELj81GkwT_ovzZkiSdD9Np8rjVGnZCINZcq1Go/s645/Wenceslaus+II.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="645" data-original-width="400" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgBxHG82zkueOQBTk6B_VvBu_T6j_7milxTBcb0LDa3bWbcu0R4OFcq4xWUqnWj86S6369aIXp7psKLKdsuj0fj6CWxWaNg_0AKd7iQNELj81GkwT_ovzZkiSdD9Np8rjVGnZCINZcq1Go/w249-h400/Wenceslaus+II.jpg" width="249" /></a></div><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><i>In 1278, the dreams of a Bohemian Empire crumbled, what followed came a
son who sought to revive this dream amidst the rise of another prominent House
– the Habsburgs. King Vaclav II (Wenceslas II) ruled Bohemia from 1278 until
his passing in 1305.</i><span><a name='more'></a></span></span></span></div><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Early Life</span></b></div></b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Vaclav II came to this world on September 27, 1271, as the son of
Bohemia King <a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2021/01/who-was-king-premsyl-ottokar-ii.html"><b>Premysl Ottokar II</b></a> and Queen Kunigunda of Slavonia. His father
Premysl Ottokar II dominated Central European politics for over 2 decades
earning a reputation as an immensely wealthy ruler being dubbed as “King of
Iron and Gold.” During the apex of his power, the Premyslid Dynasty ruled over
the lands from Bohemia to the north to the Adriatic Sea to the south. His power
brought him the candidacy to become the Holy Roman Emperor. Alas, his fate
turned sour as his ambitions collided with another rising house in the region,
that of the Habsburg Dynasty. He faced the combined might of the House of Habsburg
and Hungary’s House of Arpad in the Battle of Marchfeld in 1278.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">In the battle, Vaclav II, only 7 years old, lost his father, thus inheriting
the Kingdom Bohemia. As a child, a regent ruled on his stead appointed by the ruler
of the Holy Roman Empire, the King of Germany Rudolf I of the victorious
Habsburgs. Otto V of Brandenburg, the brother-in-law of King Ottokar II, took
the role of regent and guardian of the young monarch. Otto V’s regency,
however, marred by abuse, corruption, and repression became known as the “evil
years” in Bohemian history. While Otto V squandered Bohemia’s resources, Vaclav
went to his regent’s dominion of Brandenburg as a virtual prisoner and hostage.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Epidemic and bad harvest worsened Bohemia’s condition causing massive discontent
among the populace and went so far as the nobility negotiating with Otto to
relinquish the regency in exchange for concessions. As a result of the talks Wenceslas
to the country in 1283. With the rightful King returning to Prague, Vaclav set
his house in order. To maintain peace between his House of Premysl and
the Habsburgs of Rudolf I, he decided to marry the King of Germany’s daughter
Judith.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Domestic Rule</span></b></div></b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">His initial rule of Bohemia saw the rise of the ambitious Zavis of
Falkenstein of House Vitkovci of Southern Bohemia. The ambitious noble became
the lover of Vaclav II’s mother the Queen Dowager Kunigunda and the couple even
married. Zavis, after Kunigunda passed away in 1285, decided to marry
Elisabeth, the sister of the King of Hungary building up a Bohemian claim to
the Hungarian throne. He wanted to retake and rule over the lands which the
late Ottokar II dominated. His ambitions alarmed King Rudolf I who pressured
Vaclav into ordering the arrest of Zavis in 1289 and execution in 1290
following the suppression of a revolt by the Vitkovci family. The fall of Zavis
marked Vaclav’s direct rule over Bohemia.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">To gain the support or at least pacification of the Bohemian nobility,
Vaclav II ensured private ownership of property. He respected local “Land
Diets” that served as a political mouthpiece and administration of local
nobility. Later on, he offered them offices in Poland and Hungary during the
course of his expansion. This made the nobility contented and allowed him to
rule at ease.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">During Vaclav II’s reign, Bohemia also continued to be a mining powerhouse
driven by mines of Vihlava and Kutna Hora. The wealth generated from these
mines financed Vaclav’s endeavors and washed Prague with incredible wealth. In
1297, during his formal coronation, Prague became a party city with fountains
flowing with wine instead of water for days. Celebrations lasted for over a
week. To stimulate trade, Vaclav II introduced a new currency, the Bohemian
groschen.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">The wealth from the mines also allowed for culture to flourish. Czech
language flourished exemplified by Kunigunde’s Prayer, a spiritual poetry
written by Kunigunde, daughter of King Ottokar II and sister of Vaclav II, who
served as an abbess in St. George’s Convent. Moreover, Gothic architecture also
grew in popularity such as the case of Zvikov Castle, Spilberk Castle, and Kolin
Cathedral.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Vaclav II also made advances in Bohemia law. He hired Italian lawyers as advisers such as Gozzo of Orvieto. The King with advice from Gozzo formulated a mining code called <i>Lus
Regale Montanorum</i>.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">As domestic affairs settled down and stabilized, he then ventured out
where his skills as a diplomat became renowned.</div></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Foreign Policy</span></b></div></b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Vaclav II ruled during a time of great instability in Central European
Geopolitics. Interregnums trended while dynasties died out and various feudal
lords betting on different overlords. Vaclav must play his hand well to survive
and to rise to the occasion developing into a shrewd diplomat and ruler in
Central Europe.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">During his younger years, Bohemia suffered a defeat at the hands of the
Habsburg that damaged Premysl prestige. Moreover, his minority and domestic instability
brought by a brutal regent and an ambitious lover required a stable foreign
policy. Luckily, King Rudolf maintained Bohemia’s position as Elector in the
Holy Roman Empire and forged a peace with Vaclav cemented by his marriage to
Judith. Furthermore, after Otto V pulled out of Bohemia, he also maintained
good relations with his former regent in the North.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">An opportunity for privileges, however, aroused in 1291 with the death
of King Rudolf. A power struggle erupted for the title of King of Germany
between Count Adolf of Nassau and Rudolf’s son Albert of Austria. Vaclav
decided to place his bet with Adolf after receiving a promise of Bohemian
control over Meissen in Saxony. The bet paid off with Adolf’s election as King
of Germany, but the promise of Meissen never materialized resulting in souring
relations. Betrayed, Vaclav decided to support the ousting of Adolf who fell in
battle against Albert of Habsburg in 1298. For few years, Premysl-Habsburg
relation remained peaceful until Vaclav proved himself to be an expansionist as
his father.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Polish and Hungarian Affairs.</span></b></div></b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">The Battle of Marchfeld traumatized Bohemia from clashing with the
Habsburg for years to come. Thus, Vaclav II decided to expand his sphere of
influence elsewhere. He set his sights upon 2 vulnerable states – Poland and
Hungary.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Poland descended in the so-called Feudal Fragmentation from 1138.
Several Poland duchies existed in place of the once Piast-ruled Kingdom of
Poland. This divide showed itself as an opportunity to be exploited by Vaclav
II. In 1289, several Polish nobles in Silesia looked up to Bohemia for
leadership being attracted by the immense wealth held by Premyslid King. Bit by
bit, Silesian nobles swore fealty to Vaclav II. In 1291, the Duchy of Krakow,
one of the major duchies in Poland opened its gates to the Bohemian leader. He
then expanded to the Sandomierz region and further cemented his rule over much
of Poland by marrying Richenza (Rejcka in Bohemia), the daughter of the late
assassinated King Przemysl II of Greater of Poland. With much of the country
under his dominion, in 1300 Vaclav II became King Wenceslaus II of Poland. He secured his hold of Poland further by defeating a rival claimant <b><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2021/01/who-was-king-wladyslaw-i-of-poland.html">Wladyslaw I</a></b> around 1301.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Following Poland, Hungary also became a prime target for expansion by
Vaclav. In 1301, he received an offer to become the King of Hungary after King
Andrew III of the Arpad Dynasty passed away without an heir. To prevent the
condemnation of the King of Germany as well as the influential Pope in Rome, he
decided to place his son the later Wenceslaus III or Vaclav III as King of
Hungary. Vaclav III then went to Buda ruling as Ladislaus V. His attempts to
prevent the ire of King of Germany and Rome, however, ultimately failed. Vaclav
II’s apparent similarity to his father’s expansionism alarmed Rome and Germany
who supported the rival claim of Charles Robert of Anjou for Hungary. Vaclav
refused to back down and exploited the wider European geopolitics to his
advantage. As King Albert with the support of Pope Boniface VIII mobilized
against Bohemia, Vaclav II took the support of France’s King Philip IV who also
fought the Pontiff.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Just as the situation seemed equal, everything went downhill then. In
1304, Boniface VIII passed away giving way for the ascension of Benedict XI as
Pope which brought peace between France and Rome, hence pulling out French
involvement. Moreover, resistance from Hungarian magnates also grew against
Vaclav and his son. Vaclav had to march into the Kingdom to bring his son and
heir out of Hungary. He then faced an invasion by members of the Habsburg
family led by King Albert and the new King Charles Robert of Hungary, grandson
of King Rudolf I, and successfully repulsed it.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Demise</span></b></div></b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Vaclav prepared to make an offensive as a counter for Albert I’s
invasion. However, before the attack, Vaclav fell ill and passed away in 1305.
He left his son Vaclav to rule as Vaclav III. However, he fell to an assassin
in 1306 with the bigger perpetrator remaining unknown to this day. Vaclav’s III
death marked the extinction of the <b><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2021/01/the-premyslid-dynasty-of-bohemia.html">Premyslid Dynasty</a></b> of Bohemia. The future of
Bohemia rested upon Vaclav II’s daughter Elizabeth (Eliska) who married John of
Luxembourg. By 1310, John took the crown of Bohemia starting the new dynasty of
House Luxembourg.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Summing Up</span></b></div></b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Vaclav II’s reign proved to be the last shot for the Premyslid Dynasty
for greatness. He stood firm in a volatile and hostile political environment
using the benefit of Bohemia’s mines to the fullest. His reign saw economic,
legal, and cultural achievements while witnessing a revival of Bohemian
expansion during the reign of Ottokar II. The balance of power, however, stood
in his way incurring the wrath of Rome and the Habsburg. Tragically, illness
took him before he can take his enemies.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b>See also:</b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2021/01/the-premyslid-dynasty-of-bohemia.html">Premyslid Dynasty</a></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2021/01/who-was-king-premsyl-ottokar-ii.html">Premysl Ottokar II</a></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b>Bibliography:</b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b>Websites:</b></div><div style="text-align: justify;">"Wenceslaus II (King of Bohemia)." The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Encyclopedia.com. Accessed on January 16, 2021. URL: https://www.encyclopedia.com/reference/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/wenceslaus-ii-king-bohemia</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><br /></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. "Wenceslas II." Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed on January 16, 2021 URL: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Wenceslas-II</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><br /></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Zeman, Z.A.B. et. al. "Czechoslovak History." Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed on January 16, 2021. URL: https://www.britannica.com/topic/Czechoslovak-history</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><br /></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b>Books:</b></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Panek, Jaroslav et. al. A History of the Czech Lands, Prague: Karolinum Press, 2009.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Tanner, J.R. The Cambridge Medieval History, Volume VI: Victory of the Papacy. London: Cambridge University Press, 1929.</div></span></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p>Bob Corcuerahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14748111488274035197noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3147004568822447450.post-45951709792227217542021-01-15T22:19:00.004+08:002021-02-12T21:26:10.377+08:00Who was King Wladyslaw I of Poland?<div style="text-align: justify;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgMIjhoqO4JOXE7TTxOmDAabVU93RFjvFopyFuZdJs0dFpXGDx6OnZv9_f8vhfxv_5egRawlsPBgF1b-05RYpUfZ_Zm4m49bgMvvlYqo6OEC_WCHCD6HhnRvxclYa2Bcy0ER37izugyP0I/s500/W%25C5%2582adys%25C5%2582aw+%25C5%2581okietek.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="500" data-original-width="382" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgMIjhoqO4JOXE7TTxOmDAabVU93RFjvFopyFuZdJs0dFpXGDx6OnZv9_f8vhfxv_5egRawlsPBgF1b-05RYpUfZ_Zm4m49bgMvvlYqo6OEC_WCHCD6HhnRvxclYa2Bcy0ER37izugyP0I/s320/W%25C5%2582adys%25C5%2582aw+%25C5%2581okietek.jpg" /></a></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Between chaos and greatness in Polish history, the reign of Wladyslaw I </span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: left;">Łokietek </span>(Ladislaus I) the Short of the Elbow-High as he came to be known laid in the middle. As a father of Casimir III the Great, he reunified the country ending about 200
years of the divide. His reign set the stage for a new chapter in Polish history.</i></div></span></span></div></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><span><a name='more'></a></span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: x-large;"><b><br /></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">Early Life</span></b></span></div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Born around 1260 or 1261, Wladyslaw was the son of Casimir I, Duke of
Kujawy.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><span style="font-weight: normal;"><div style="text-align: justify;">In 1267, Wladyslaw succeeded his father to become the Duke of Kujawy.
He inherited this dominion amidst the period known as Feudal Fragmentation
where the once united Kingdom of Poland disintegrated into several duchies. The
divide began in 1138 during the reign of King Boleslaw III in his attempt to
divide the country between his sons to avoid a violent civil war. It went
obviously sour resulting to around 200 years of division.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-weight: normal;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Attempts had been made to reunite the country. Those who did, however,
came from monarchs of Poland’s powerful neighbors, especially the Kingdom of
Bohemia. The Archbishop of Gniezno (the ecclesiastical capital of Poland) Jakub
Swinka also called for Polish reunification. Wladyslaw then entered the prey of
monarchs and nobles desiring the joining of Poland.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiXw-MPlaxxUal59gYVkfs89XQV1Gj9ugucIrHS-M9bEGh3I7xT97uPhtz2mRX-CJYp9wl6HTMCjgtOn1s6G-uCfWwwBCeRt8Xcl7MqXAOwfWvDmpb6Ca6BlD1zJqUUgmGqY9W5o4v2zaM/s548/Jakub+%25C5%259Awinka.png" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="548" data-original-width="474" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiXw-MPlaxxUal59gYVkfs89XQV1Gj9ugucIrHS-M9bEGh3I7xT97uPhtz2mRX-CJYp9wl6HTMCjgtOn1s6G-uCfWwwBCeRt8Xcl7MqXAOwfWvDmpb6Ca6BlD1zJqUUgmGqY9W5o4v2zaM/s320/Jakub+%25C5%259Awinka.png" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; text-align: start;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Jakub Świnka</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></div></span><span><div style="text-align: justify;">In 1288, Wladsylaw took his first step for the conquest of Poland. On
that year Duke Leszek Czarny the Black passed away, leaving his several duchies
open for grabs. Wladyslaw seized as much as many principalities into his
domain. Then, military campaigns and diplomatic overtures allowed Wladyslaw to
take control of Great Poland in 1296. However, the victories lasted only short
as in 1300 King Wenceslas II of Bohemia grabbed the position of King of Poland.
Bohemian troops and forces of Polish nobles who sided with the Bohemian monarch
trampled over those who opposed including Wladyslaw. Wladyslaw surrendered his armed
resistance, but not his quest for the Polish crown. He traveled to Rome to
lobby for the support of Pope Boniface VIII. He succeeded and with Papal
endorsement, he returned to Poland in 1305 bringing with him additional support
from the powerful neighboring Kingdom of Hungary. Wladyslaw’s luck continued
when in 1306 <a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2021/01/who-was-vaclav-ii-wenceslas-ii-of.html"><b>Wenceslas II</b></a> passed away opening the doors of Krakow to him.</div><div style="font-weight: normal; text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><b>Unification of Poland</b></div><span style="font-weight: normal;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Wladyslaw then set out to unite Poland from Krakow and his powerbase of
Lesser Poland. From there, he stood poise to expand into Pomerania and Gdansk.
However, instability in Pomerania and Gdansk resulted in Teutonic Knight’s
intervention. The Order advanced into the city and the region in 1308
culminating with the notorious Gdansk massacre that resulted in the death of
the city’s defenders and a substantial part of its population. They then
consolidated their power from Marienburg where the Teutonic Knight Grand Master
set up his headquarters. The German knight’s advance blocked any hope for
Wladyslaw of access to the Baltic Sea.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-weight: normal;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Despite the setback in the north, Wladyslaw continued his conquest with
other Polish principalities who stood in his way. Resistance to Wladyslaw
persisted even within Krakow. In 1311, Krakow Mayor Albert and Bishop Jan
Muskata led a revolt preferring the rule of a Bohemian monarch rather than
Wladyslaw. Wladyslaw crush the rebellion within a year and his forces captured
Bishop Muskata and sent to Gniezno to face an ecclesiastical court led by a pro-unification Archbishop and head of the Polish Catholic Church Jakub Swinka.
The Archbishop labeled Muskata “enemy of the Polish people” and banished him
until his dying days in 1320. In 1314, Wladyslaw also captured the Greater
Poland. After this conquest, he set out to obtain the title of King from the
Pope which took years of negotiations until 1320.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><b>King of the United Polish Kingdom?</b></div><span style="font-weight: normal;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">On January 20, 1320, Wladyslaw I crowned himself King of Poland in
Krakow. Although he crowned himself as King, his reclamation remained
incomplete. Silesia, Masovia, and Pomerania continued to lay outside Polish
rule. Moreover, the King of Bohemia, John of Luxembourg persisted for his right
as King of Poland since 1310.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><div style="text-align: justify;">The claim of John of Luxembourg over the Polish throne troubled
Wladyslaw’s claim over Silesia. The new Polish King faced discontent among the
Silesian and Masovian nobles instigated by Bohemia. To counter the growing Bohemian
menace, he strengthened relations with his other powerful neighbors, namely
Hungary and Lithuania. He had his daughter Elizabeth married Charles I of Hungary
becoming a towering figure in the politics of the 2 countries. On the other
hand, he had his son <a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2021/01/who-was-casimir-great.html"><b>Casimir (the future Casimir III the Great)</b></a> marry Aldona,
daughter of the Duke of Lithuania.</div><div style="font-weight: normal; text-align: justify;"><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEirebheixKBcgM3CEYHxWxVorgZ4O-OzWrCRT6W1I4Y5f_GM3dL9v-EjU-k1JqqUX1-vlPR-34NGiHHKb857IwS4AELym_MhM7Hasw2-6tazdYd74g4h_rW__CTUa-JnUVBI_7sOMHcTxE/s598/Casimir+the+Great.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="598" data-original-width="378" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEirebheixKBcgM3CEYHxWxVorgZ4O-OzWrCRT6W1I4Y5f_GM3dL9v-EjU-k1JqqUX1-vlPR-34NGiHHKb857IwS4AELym_MhM7Hasw2-6tazdYd74g4h_rW__CTUa-JnUVBI_7sOMHcTxE/w253-h400/Casimir+the+Great.jpg" width="253" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Casimir III</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></div><span style="font-weight: normal;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Lithuania’s assistance stood in vital importance in countering the
growing threat of the Teutonic Knights. From 1320 to 1321, Wladyslaw sought a
Papal Arbitration to answer the dispute over Pomerania. A Papal Legate did come
and convened court in Inowroclaw. The arbitration resulted in Polish victory,
but its enforcement impotent as the Knights disregarded it. Tensions remained
hostile and imploded in 1330. With the threat of Bohemia distracting Wladyslaw,
news came from the north that the Teutonic Knights took the opportunity to
invade Poland. Wladyslaw faced this invasion head on immediately and won the
Battle of Plowce. Despite this victory, it failed to stop the Teutonic Knights
from capturing Wladyslaw’s homeland of Kujawy as well as Dobrzyn.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-weight: normal;"><div style="text-align: justify;">The consolidation of Poland remained incomplete when in 1333, Wladyslaw
passed away leaving a fragile kingdom to his son Casimir setting the stage for
this monarch’s rise.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><b>Summing Up</b></div><div style="font-weight: normal; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="font-weight: normal; text-align: justify;">Wladyslaw I reunited Poland after 2 centuries of division. Facing
tremendously difficult opponents, he used diplomacy to his advantage. Though
his work for a complete reunification remained undone, it became the quest for
Casimir III the Great to finish. He may be outshined by his son, but he gave
them hope that future generations realized.</div><div style="font-weight: normal; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b>See also:</b></div><div style="font-weight: normal; text-align: justify;"><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2021/01/who-was-casimir-great.html">Casimir III the Great</a></div><div style="font-weight: normal; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b>Bibliography:</b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b>Books:</b></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Davies, Norman. <i>A History of Poland, God's Playground</i>. New York, New York: Columbia University Press, 1982.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Halecki, O. <i>A History of Poland</i>. New York, New York: Dorset Press, 1992.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b>General Reference:</b></div><div style="text-align: justify;">"Wladyslaw I Lokietek (the Short or the Elbow-High)." <i>Historical Dictionary of Poland, 966 - 1945</i>. Edited by George Lerski. Westport Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1996.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">"Wladyslaw I." <i>Historical Dictionary of Poland</i>. Edited by George Sanford. Lanham, Maryland: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2003.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b>Website:</b></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. "Poland." <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>. Accessed on January 3, 2021. URL: https://www.britannica.com/place/Poland</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. "Wladyslaw I." <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>. Accessed on January 3, 2021. URL: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Wladyslaw-I</div></span></div>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p>Bob Corcuerahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14748111488274035197noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3147004568822447450.post-10717203459065244002021-01-10T16:22:00.001+08:002021-01-10T17:39:48.617+08:00Who was Casimir the Great?<div style="text-align: justify;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjSu51C9wyCcSUiFLMkqG_QPwrhwv1YjaMrLIpsGphvNkbLHSflSP5LiRhWWmA_tVpdIHa1hGLiiZY4BYSI_rCwdG960-mF7Zy9hbHwD-1Ws3lhhcdSAeOhNIyda3XTXB_dFlt_vGKHNSs/s598/Casimir+the+Great.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="598" data-original-width="378" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjSu51C9wyCcSUiFLMkqG_QPwrhwv1YjaMrLIpsGphvNkbLHSflSP5LiRhWWmA_tVpdIHa1hGLiiZY4BYSI_rCwdG960-mF7Zy9hbHwD-1Ws3lhhcdSAeOhNIyda3XTXB_dFlt_vGKHNSs/w253-h400/Casimir+the+Great.jpg" width="253" /></a></div><span style="font-family: arial;"><i><span style="font-size: large;">"Casimir found Poland built of wood, and he left if constructed of bricks.”</span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><a name='more'></a></span></i></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Casimir III received the epithet “the Great” being a rare honor to be given among the Polish Kings. He earned such a reputation for his role as a talented diplomat, unifier, and administrator that changed the Kingdom of Poland in his 30-year reign from a divided weak country to potential great power.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;">Early Years</span></b></div><span style="font-family: arial;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Born in 1310 in Krakow, Casimir was the 3rd son of the King of Poland, <b><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2021/01/who-was-king-wladyslaw-i-of-poland.html">Wladyslaw I</a>,</b> and Queen Jadwiga. Only scanty information had been known on the childhood days of the future Polish ruler. But his education fell to the responsibility of Jaroslaw, the future Archbishop of Gniezno and head of the Catholic Church in Poland. Casimir's older brother passed away young and in 1312, his other brother, Wladyslaw, also passed away making him heir of the Kingdom being forged by his father.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">In 1320, Casimir’s father King Wladyslaw crowned as King of Poland marked the revival of the Polish Kingdom under the Piast Dynasty. Since 1138, the Kingdom of Poland descended into fragmentation as several principalities and duchies partition the country. This made the Poles vulnerable to the influence and absorption by powerful states surrounding their lands, namely: the Kingdom of Bohemia, the Kingdom of Hungary, the growing Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and finally the dreaded Teutonic Knights. Wladyslaw campaigned in the early 14th century to reunite the divided Polish people. Casimir accompanied his father campaigning and witnessing the glories and horrors of war. This made him wary and careful of using military force.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">In 1333, King Wladyslaw I passed away leaving Casimir to inherit the Crown. Casimir III inherited a powder keg for a Kingdom surrounded by more powerful aggressive neighbors and a newly fragile united Kingdom with regionalism threatening to undo Wladyslaw’s work. Casimir’s reign then focused on healing the wounds of division and stabilize Poland’s situation on the international stage.</span></div><div style="font-size: x-large; text-align: justify;"><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiiNVPiiU6Y3terz7bTEbob_pj5UFMGjNgDxUtWJKanqZy-UyeB1ww7nx4z3OD5rhQP6N0fva5HJjne0s9M_lsy5vvjMUcOIOV-qIY6Nl1z9Uy9XmjrMkjwR-gsnjeEA8tP-8IC0TEetmo/s600/Casimir+III+the+Great+by+Jan+Matejko.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="600" data-original-width="445" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiiNVPiiU6Y3terz7bTEbob_pj5UFMGjNgDxUtWJKanqZy-UyeB1ww7nx4z3OD5rhQP6N0fva5HJjne0s9M_lsy5vvjMUcOIOV-qIY6Nl1z9Uy9XmjrMkjwR-gsnjeEA8tP-8IC0TEetmo/w296-h400/Casimir+III+the+Great+by+Jan+Matejko.jpg" width="296" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Casimir III by Jan Matejko</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></div><b><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">Domestic Reforms</span></b></div></b><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Casimir’s reign followed the so-called slogan “One King, One Law, One Currency.” It embodied the monarch’s intentions to strengthen the unity between the different provinces of the Kingdom. Through his benevolent rule, he grew to become a beloved King from top to bottom of the social strata becoming even known as the “Peasant King.”</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">In administration, he shifted power within the duchies from the hands of <i>Voyevoda</i> or the <i>Kasztelan, </i>appointed by the local Lords during the time of Feudal Fragmentation, to the <i>Starosta, </i>appointees of the monarch, a practice that traced back to Kingdom Wenceslas II (r. 1300 – 1305). A Starosta handled the affairs in judicial, finance, and military affairs. They stayed in office by the grace of the monarch. The measure came as Casimir’s efforts to centralize the government and cement the country's unification under the Piast Kings.</span></div><div style="font-size: x-large; text-align: justify;"><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgdMhNcIUePQq_Str3w179Xdt0ANwq0QtOhP90uNBTzrtjqTwIETVJI2nA6sWgejq2P_qhsloQiV4PdXt-kPGrzl-hQfLK-m-ahRFRPetJe8kDqqpMXSer6AJ0yuhSuo2fyPDcWK6NYY9o/s645/Wenceslaus+II.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="645" data-original-width="400" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgdMhNcIUePQq_Str3w179Xdt0ANwq0QtOhP90uNBTzrtjqTwIETVJI2nA6sWgejq2P_qhsloQiV4PdXt-kPGrzl-hQfLK-m-ahRFRPetJe8kDqqpMXSer6AJ0yuhSuo2fyPDcWK6NYY9o/w248-h400/Wenceslaus+II.jpg" width="248" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Wenceslaus II</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Besides administration, Casimir also delved into creating a standard codified law for all of his subjects. In 1347, a congress of the Kingdom’s nobility, clergy, and notables convened to work on the Kingdom’s new code of law. The work ended in 1362 with the completion of 2 codes of law, 1 for Greater Poland which became known as the Statutes of Piotrkow and the other for Lesser Poland called the Statues of Wislica. Though Casimir failed to create a unified single code of law, the statutes came as progress for the Polish legal system.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Despite the lack of representation of the peasantry in the proceedings, the code showed leniency towards them and King Casimir himself ensured to ease their sufferings, thus becoming known as Peasant King. For a professional and independent judgment of law, Casimir also founded special courts in Krakow.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">To produce high-quality lawyers as well as intellectuals, Casimir III established the Krakow University in 1364, one of the oldest in Europe and 2nd to be established in Central and Eastern Europe following the University of Prague. Modeled after the University of Bologna, the University’s charter gained the approval of Pope Urban V on May 12, 1364. It hosted 1 chair for the Liberal Arts, 2 for Medicine, 3 for Canon Law, and 6 for Roman Law. Casimir financed the institution with revenues from the salt monopoly quarterly and had his Royal Chancellor Janusz Suchwilk to supervise the new educational institution. The university, however, faced challenges in finding competent professors and failed to be fully utilized during his reign. After his death, in 1670, the University ceased to exist. Only during the reign of Queen Jadwiga and King Wladyslaw II that the University found a firm footing existing even to this day as the Jagiellonian University of Krakow.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhpCSs1zsUZfuFQipTqHI_qcyxZzrsbNK4wNMcFXg-ynj0MfqbQtm8lVT8N7e3VM1jZrtuPQU1GEPvBkrleJZk1EycYi8pMJoIA1xR0Ju0OtCfk28YXPdomNAi76l8Frldd5smYfHbZ03w/s1040/The+founding+of+the+University+in+1364%252C+painted+by+Jan+Matejko.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1040" data-original-width="800" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhpCSs1zsUZfuFQipTqHI_qcyxZzrsbNK4wNMcFXg-ynj0MfqbQtm8lVT8N7e3VM1jZrtuPQU1GEPvBkrleJZk1EycYi8pMJoIA1xR0Ju0OtCfk28YXPdomNAi76l8Frldd5smYfHbZ03w/s320/The+founding+of+the+University+in+1364%252C+painted+by+Jan+Matejko.jpg" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">The founding of the University, <br />painted by Jan Matejko</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Economically, Casimir also made his mark in Poland’s coinage. Hoping to stimulate trade he began to issue a thick silver coin known as the Krakow Grosz. Trade, thus, flourished along the ancient trade route known as the Amber Road. Over this route, Hungarian copper moved north while cloth and salted herring went south. From the east furs, honey, cattle, and slaves moved west while in the other direction brought textile and implements. Moreover, Casimir promoted the development of the salt industry in Wieliczka as well as the mining industry, specifically for lead and tin in Olkusz and iron in Kielce.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Finally, besides making Poland stronger, building Poland in stone meant also literally. Casimir ordered the construction of numerous brick and stone structures. In Krakow, he ordered the expansion of the Wawel Castle adding a Gothic stone structure to serve as his residence. He also supported the reconstruction of the Wawel Cathedral, also in the Gothic style, and the rebuilding of the St. Mary’s Basilica from 1355 to 1365. He sponsored the reconstruction of the Cathedral of Gniezno that burned down by the Teutonic Knights in 1331. Across the country, the King also ordered or supported the construction or upgrade of about 50 castles meant for defense, including the Przemysl Castle, Bedzin Castle, Bobolice Castle, and Chęciny Castle.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Casimir also approved the establishment of about 70 towns and cities under the Magdeburg Law that gave them autonomy. Kazimierz, a town established in honor of Casimir III, near Krakow served as an example. It became well known later as a Jewish enclave.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">The rise in the Jewish population of Poland began with Casimir’s relaxation in the immigration of German as well as Jewish settlers. According to legend, Casimir fell in love with a Jewish woman named Esther that convinced him to allow Jews to come into the country. This tale, however, proved to be mythical. Across Europe, Jews suffered persecution especially during the height of the Black Death when they became scapegoats and scorned greatly. Against this tide, Casimir welcomed them most likely for their skills and wealth. The immigration openness made Poland the home of the largest population of Jews in Europe until World War II.</span></div><div style="font-size: x-large; text-align: justify;"><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgwwxhljc5cQI8yYg6wZgejX6kpZFhyl4T2W2kuVMhhl8aPjDvwynfZsxor8mRC4lXPi081t4lYubYA6X3_wkZOlmUTCSFbeQvHYIWX6Iypwi0hy19zjwvB3thUq-XXe6HY9aY4K5HrIj0/s1280/Casimir+the+Great+and+the+Jews%252C+by+Wojciech+Gerson.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="965" data-original-width="1280" height="301" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgwwxhljc5cQI8yYg6wZgejX6kpZFhyl4T2W2kuVMhhl8aPjDvwynfZsxor8mRC4lXPi081t4lYubYA6X3_wkZOlmUTCSFbeQvHYIWX6Iypwi0hy19zjwvB3thUq-XXe6HY9aY4K5HrIj0/w400-h301/Casimir+the+Great+and+the+Jews%252C+by+Wojciech+Gerson.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Casimir the Great and the Jews, by Wojciech Gerson</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Casimir III the Great’s reign saw great progressive policies. He aimed to unify his country under one law and currency. In some fields, he succeeded, but in others, he had mixed outcomes. He also made his reign memorable through the stone by erecting structures that lasted even to this day providing a window to life and culture during the Middle Ages. Casimir’s epithet, however, came not just for his internal policies, but also for his talent as a diplomat.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><b><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">Foreign Policy</span></b></div></b><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Casimir had in his hands a volatile geopolitical situation. His newly united Poland came under threat from its powerful neighbors: the Kingdom of Hungary, Kingdom of Bohemia, Teutonic Knights, and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Practicing Realpolitik by recognizing his countries weakness compared to their neighbors, Casimir avoided military conflict influenced by his youth and chose to diplomatically maneuver Poland from a mediocre state to a well-respected and regarded Kingdom in just 3 decades.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Poland grew closer to Hungary in the 1320s cemented by the marriage of Casimir’s sister Elizabeth to King Charles Robert of Hungary. The marriage benefited both Casimir and Charles Robert who also faced a tremendous challenge from the Holy Roman Empires and Bohemia. Elizabeth in turn, became a <i>de facto</i> ambassador of Hungary to Krakow, becoming an influential figure in Polish foreign policy and politics.</span></div><div style="font-size: x-large; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjFvC8bjPX9mZQAmRjJBkk36yt5rmkORId7nlRyAhI8IngH0471H2CWeArNzJARTaWtEz3GXe9TOTFHIS5WhzCw_d8R4CE7BwCxirBfMc8CdzdHnQ4a30GyeRcU6EBYI5cvO2D8fUVv9jE/s800/Elisabeth%2527s+marriage+to+Charles+Robert+of+Hungary.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="585" data-original-width="800" height="293" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjFvC8bjPX9mZQAmRjJBkk36yt5rmkORId7nlRyAhI8IngH0471H2CWeArNzJARTaWtEz3GXe9TOTFHIS5WhzCw_d8R4CE7BwCxirBfMc8CdzdHnQ4a30GyeRcU6EBYI5cvO2D8fUVv9jE/w400-h293/Elisabeth%2527s+marriage+to+Charles+Robert+of+Hungary.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Elisabeth's marriage to Charles Robert of Hungary</span></td></tr></tbody></table><div style="font-size: x-large; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">In 1335, Casimir III attended a summit of leaders in Visegrad, Hungary along with the King of Bohemia to form a united front to check the growing encroachment of the Holy Roman Empire to Eastern and Central Europe. Moreover, it also became the ground to settle territorial disputes between the 3 Kingdoms. During the summit, John of Luxembourg, ruler of Bohemia, renounced his claim to the Kingdom of Poland that stood as a rival claimant for his and his father. In exchange for this renunciation, Poland paid 400,000 silver groats and renounced claims over the productive region of Silesia. Casimir saw the territorial concession as a minor setback to secure peace while also considering practicality whether Poland could capably handle a territory with a growing German population. The Treaty of Trentschin reaffirmed this arrangement.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Following the Visegrad Congress, another meeting convened in the city in 1339 to deal with Poland’s succession problem. Casimir the Great fathered no male heir in all of his marriages. To stabilize the political future of the country, Casimir agreed to designate his nephew and Hungarian Prince Louis as his heir. All sides agreed and secured the future of Poland.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">On the other hand, Casimir maintained a fragile peace with the Teutonic Knights. In 1331, Casimir’s father defeated the Order in the Battle of Plowce which gave Poland diplomatic leverage in negotiations. In 1333, a truce struck between Poland and the Teutonic Order allowed the Catholic military organization’s Grand Master Luther von Braunschweig to attend Casimir’s coronation. Both sides reaffirmed the peace in the Visegrad Summit. Talks for a long-term peace settlement drag on in Rome and Warsaw until 1343 ending with the signing of the Treaty of Kalisz. Under the agreement Poland loss control over Pomerania and Gdansk blocking the kingdom off from the Baltic Sea. The Polish Kingdom nonetheless retook Kujawy and Dobrzyn, lands lost during Wladyslaw I’s reign.</span></div><div style="font-size: x-large; text-align: justify;"><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzSPXJrLmxK-ha9D096XImKTsTqYcLwCOiBosNA24UJkN0NNs6OXNi2r3w74j2Xqjop972IrNuHrlpRuXEsgWOhYY1C3d9y4Nmq6hZ0gnb4Q2Acf20_3p0PimlE6dL-IgA1Wl5SgtpYAs/s800/Battle+of+Plowce+by+Juliusz+Kossak.jpeg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="423" data-original-width="800" height="338" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzSPXJrLmxK-ha9D096XImKTsTqYcLwCOiBosNA24UJkN0NNs6OXNi2r3w74j2Xqjop972IrNuHrlpRuXEsgWOhYY1C3d9y4Nmq6hZ0gnb4Q2Acf20_3p0PimlE6dL-IgA1Wl5SgtpYAs/w640-h338/Battle+of+Plowce+by+Juliusz+Kossak.jpeg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Battle of Plowce by Juliusz Kossak</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">While Casimir suffered from loss of territory in the west and north, he compensated with expansions east. In 1340, the ruler of Halicz-Volhynia in the region called Ruthenia/Red Russia Prince Yuri II Boleslav’s (Boleslaw-Jerzy II) demise triggered his agreement with Poland that upon his passing the territory would fall to Casimir III. The Polish Monarch moved in to secure his new dominion. A competition then erupted between Lithuania and Poland over the territory. It took until 1366 for Casimir to secure the region under which he initiated the consolidation of Polish hold through liberal policies. Casimir accepted diversity and though he prepared for the eventual inclusion of the region to the Catholic organization, he continued to allow the practice of Greek Orthodoxy. He also welcomed Lithuanian vassals and maintained the status quo. Besides, from 1351 to 1353, Casimir slowly, but surely vassalized much of the Lords of Masovia. He secured the dominion over these territories after recognizing Bohemian control over Swindica (Scheweidnitz) and Jawor (Jauer).</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Over the reign of Casimir, Poland’s territory expanded from a size of 50,000 square miles to 90,000 square miles.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Casimir also expanded the diplomatic reach of Poland. Casimir's relations with Lithuanian coincided with personal affairs with his marriage to Aldona-Ona (Anna), daughter of the Duke of Lithuania. With Aldona’s arrival came the return of 24,000 Polish POW captured during the conflict between the 2 countries. Relation remained smooth along with the marriage. Casimir also dealt with Valdemar Atterdag of Denmark in economic terms, especially with regards to the Holy Roman Empire and the Hanseatic League. He also established continuous communication with the Pope in Avignon being aware of having the influential pontiff as a strong strategic partner.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Casimir’s headways in diplomacy resulted in Poland’s growing international presence. His efforts culminated with the convening of the Congress of Krakow in 1364 attended by King of Hungary Louis I, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Bohemia Charles IV, Archduke of Austria Rudolf IV, King of Demark Valdemar IV, Cyprus King Pierre de Lusignan (Peter I), Duke Otto of Bavaria, Duke Ziemowit of Masovia, Duke Bolko of Swidnica, Duke Wladyslaw of Opole, and Duke Boguslaw of Slupsk. The summit’s agenda focused on the formation of an anti-Turkish coalition meant to launch a crusade in the Levant. The meeting concluded with empty promises and ended up discussing disputes between Hungary and Bohemia. According to the French poet Guillaume de Machault, the summit also hosted a lavish celebration and jousting with the most legendary being one by Krakow merchant Nicholas Wierzynek. Despite the lack of concrete declaration, the fact that numerous important leaders attended the Congress demonstrated the credibility as well as the importance of Poland in international affairs.</span></div><div style="font-size: x-large; text-align: justify;"><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjFhCIYWZ6Zd8knONwOv7pIVGSLgJU3SoOg_7KGlEXVVbYW0hwE-J-MLMO__EzJoXU2ZPKYwjoKOPhcCNCwzUmBpStexaDTZ_G0-e5jEv2LOirXOMZXv3BlMIRHSbcWW63bOnXiXyfXfv0/s800/Congress+of+Krakow.png" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="800" data-original-width="621" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjFhCIYWZ6Zd8knONwOv7pIVGSLgJU3SoOg_7KGlEXVVbYW0hwE-J-MLMO__EzJoXU2ZPKYwjoKOPhcCNCwzUmBpStexaDTZ_G0-e5jEv2LOirXOMZXv3BlMIRHSbcWW63bOnXiXyfXfv0/s320/Congress+of+Krakow.png" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Congress of Krakow</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">The Polish King also extended alliances over different royal and noble families through marriage. For example, her daughter Elizabeth married Bogislaw V of Pomerania, which could provide Poland a future stake in the succession within the duchy. His 2nd daughter Kunigunde married Louis of Brandenburg to enlist the German principality’s support against the Teutonic Order. Casimir also attempted to use his marriages for the same effect, but the lack of heirs led to a string of failures and even scandals.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><b><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">The Succession Problem and Demise</span></b></div></b><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Despite Casimir’s success in politics, he failed in his dynastical duty to produce an heir. His marriage to Aldona of Lithuania characterized as unhappy ended with the Queen’s death in 1339. He then married Aldelhaid of Hesse in 1341, with the backing of Charles I of Bohemia who sought to counterbalance Hungarian influence in the court represented by Elizabeth, an intention that the King of Poland would have shared. But the failure of paying the dowry to the bride’s side and absence of a son resulted in the failure of the marriage and Aldelhaid returned home in 1356 - a separation without Papal annulment. Then came his marriage in 1365 to the Silesian Princess Hedwig of Glogau-Sagan. This time aimed towards staking a future claim to Silesia. This marriage became scandalous due to the lack of formal annulment by the papacy over his previous marriage. Casimir had a Papal Dispensation, a <i>de facto</i> annulment paper, forged to have the wedding. Casimir took the risk of ex-communication but avoided this when he sent Polish troops to aid Pope Urban V in his conflict with Milan. The difficult road for marriage, nevertheless, failed to produce an heir, thus maintaining the conditions set in 1339.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">In 1339, to prevent internal strife and with influence from his sister Elizabeth, Casimir declared his nephew Louis I of Hungary as his successor. This situation, however, required the support of his nobles who later sought privileges and concession for their approval. In 1370, Casimir III passed away after a hunting accident. He left his kingdom to Louis I of Hungary as expected.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><b><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">Summing Up</span></b></div></b><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Casimir III’s wooden Poland stood dangerous in the middle of more powerful neighbors, united in a volatile situation, and literally still built buildings in wood. After his reign, his country stood firmer with his reforms in currency, industry, infrastructure, and law. It stood safer after his hard-won and expensive peace with his neighboring country. The peace itself provided the stability needed to enact the domestic reform necessary to leave Poland a better country upon Casimir’s death in 1370.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b>See also:</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2021/01/who-was-king-wladyslaw-i-of-poland.html">Wladyslaw I</a></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">Bibliography:</span></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">Book:</span></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Halecki, O. A History of Poland. New York, New York: Dorset Press, 1992.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Mizwa, Stephen (ed.). Great Men and Women of Poland. New York, New York: The Macmillan Company, 1942.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">General Reference:</span></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">"Kazimierz III Wielki." Historical Dictionary of Poland, 966 - 1945. Edited by George Lerski. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1996.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">Websites:</span></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Cawley Charles. "Poland." Foundation for Medieval Genealogy. Accessed on December 31, 2020. URL: <a href="http://fmg.ac/Projects/MedLands/POLAND.htm#_ftnref586">http://fmg.ac/Projects/MedLands/POLAND.htm#_ftnref586</a></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Rhose, Gotthold K.S. " Casimir III." Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed on December 31, 2020. URL: <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Casimir-III">https://www.britannica.com/biography/Casimir-III</a> </span></div><div style="font-size: x-large; text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span></div>Bob Corcuerahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14748111488274035197noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3147004568822447450.post-71468400104672459122021-01-09T14:23:00.004+08:002021-03-01T20:55:59.854+08:00The Premyslid Dynasty of Bohemia<div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: left;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgmZOX9qDCSrAmf7opgAZ1O3NHShfColk0ddnuCDj9PQWryB6n_eFvEFOTgB39nfI-bMDH3fUCYtwgdzJfQwicpdGMXfbk_cbUf6O5CmQxevkIyY0646nMnReDlpS2aoJ4NVNGDGvfKZkw/s546/The+Last+3+Premyslid+Kings.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="410" data-original-width="546" height="480" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgmZOX9qDCSrAmf7opgAZ1O3NHShfColk0ddnuCDj9PQWryB6n_eFvEFOTgB39nfI-bMDH3fUCYtwgdzJfQwicpdGMXfbk_cbUf6O5CmQxevkIyY0646nMnReDlpS2aoJ4NVNGDGvfKZkw/w640-h480/The+Last+3+Premyslid+Kings.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>A story of a
dynasty overshadowed by another. They shaped Bohemia and built the foundation
of the modern Czech people. The Premyslid dynasty ruled Bohemia from around 9th
century to the 1306 and contented for greatness, but fell short against the
rising prominent house – the Habsburgs – ultimately ending with their
extinction.<span><a name='more'></a></span></span></div><span style="font-family: arial;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">Bohemia – the Land of the Premyslids</span></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">The
Premyslid grew from the land known as Bohemia in Central Europe filled with
legends, myths, and migration. According
to the <i>Chronica Boemorum</i> written in
the 12th century, Bohemia traced its origin from the Slav leader Bohemus who
arrived at the foot of Mt. Rip between the 2 rivers of Ohre and Vitava. In
those lands, he said to have declared:</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><blockquote><span style="font-size: large;">A land
subject to no one, filled with wild animals and fowl, wet with nectar, honey,
and milk, and, as you yourselves see, air delightful for living.</span></blockquote></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">From this
Slavic leader, the name Bohemia said to have originated. Another legend, well
known about Bohemia and the Czech people, connected with the famous legends of
the 3 Slavic brothers: Lech, Cech, and Rus. According to legend, Cech led his
tribe and like Bohemus settled in the lands near Mt. Rip planting the roots of
the future Czech people.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhE50REVEVyAUrhwcDd1wj8qBJDEe1Qa5oKvykJZVdfXxLlpTnvKzTxwPidHVm28DhFMEZiO-Rw1qjhEEfiHtxOLwHTSnUl42UCQEtYL4F9-WzkIEk9CgtzZ_8BIG0JmW9TyNBAN-17ocA/s560/Lech%252C+Czech%252C+Rus+and+the+White+Eagle%252C+as+painted+by+Walery+Eljasz-Radzikowski.png" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="560" data-original-width="416" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhE50REVEVyAUrhwcDd1wj8qBJDEe1Qa5oKvykJZVdfXxLlpTnvKzTxwPidHVm28DhFMEZiO-Rw1qjhEEfiHtxOLwHTSnUl42UCQEtYL4F9-WzkIEk9CgtzZ_8BIG0JmW9TyNBAN-17ocA/w298-h400/Lech%252C+Czech%252C+Rus+and+the+White+Eagle%252C+as+painted+by+Walery+Eljasz-Radzikowski.png" width="298" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Lech, Czech, Rus and the White Eagle <br />by Walery Eljasz-Radzikowski</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Historically,
the land of Bohemia saw different ethnicity come and go. The Celtic people
called the Boii once settled in the region before the Germanic Marcomanni and
Qadi supplanted them. Then in the 6th century, Slavs arrived and began to live
off the lands. In the 7th century, the Avars conquered the lands until a
Frankish merchant name Samo led the fight for the liberation from the Eurasian
marauders. By the 8th century, Frankish chroniclers called the lands <i>Beehaimi</i> or <i>Boemani</i>, meaning the “Land of the Boii,” thus the name Bohemia.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">From the 8th
century until 906, the Great Moravian Kingdom rose to prominence in Bohemia.
During the time of the Great Moravian Kingdom, Christianity spread in the
region. Then came the exploits of the revered siblings St. Constantine (later
took the name of Cyril) and St. Methodius who brought Christianity to the
Slavic people by using native Slavonic language in liturgies and the early
Slavonic alphabet Glagolitic. Eventually, as Bohemia went closer to
western tradition represented by the Holy Roman Empire and the Pope, Slavonic
liturgy gave way to Latin Liturgy. Amidst the growth of Christianity and closer
ties to the west, the Premyslid dynasty grew in strength.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><b><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">Early Premyslid Rulers</span></b></div></b><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Borivoj came
to be known as the earliest Premyslid ruler. He said to have descended from a farmer named Premysl who married a seer named Libuse. Borivoj also became a
Christian being baptized by St. Methodius himself. In honor of his new faith,
he ordered the construction of the Church of St. Clement in Levý Hradec, just
north of present-day Prague. In 885, he moved his seat of power to a new
stronghold in a nearby hill from Levý Hradec which came to be known as Praha or
Prague.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="font-size: x-large; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi90UuHd7E0QsBoxYYUAd9pCn59YvAt7Ao-vQ1hkTpJIqwYAYywtRPAtcn4_0OMDSI1ori5gEyRn-18R_oj0CO9PFf1GFiw55_7dbI_Lbma6ukb51eeeOTP4yva10xOUTOGJ55ZVE6_hMw/s400/Christening+of+Duke+Borivoj.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="400" data-original-width="287" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi90UuHd7E0QsBoxYYUAd9pCn59YvAt7Ao-vQ1hkTpJIqwYAYywtRPAtcn4_0OMDSI1ori5gEyRn-18R_oj0CO9PFf1GFiw55_7dbI_Lbma6ukb51eeeOTP4yva10xOUTOGJ55ZVE6_hMw/w288-h400/Christening+of+Duke+Borivoj.jpg" width="288" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Christening of Duke Borivoj</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Borivoj’s
Premyslid line produced for centuries Dukes for Bohemia. Spytithnev, son of
Borivoj declared his independence from Moravia. Slowly, Premyslid Dukes incorporated lands of the former Great Moravian Kingdom. During also this period,
the Premyslid maintained good relations with the Kingdom of East Francia – a
splinter kingdom of the former Holy Roman Empire after 843. 929, King Wenceslaus swore fealty to King
Henry I of East Francia. The good relations, however, turned sour with the
assassination of <b><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2021/02/st-vaclav-wenceslas-and-boleslav-cruel.html">Duke Wenceslaus</a></b> (r.
921 – 935). His brother and successor <b><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2021/02/st-vaclav-wenceslas-and-boleslav-cruel.html">Boleslav I</a></b> (r. 935 – 967) said to have orchestrated the assassination earning him
the epithet Boleslav the Cruel while Wenceslaus became St. Wenceslaus the good.
Under Boleslav’s reign, Bohemia resisted Frankish influence and successfully defeated
Otto I in 950. Despite his tainted rise to power, he proved to be a good ruler
that contributed to the strengthening of the Premyslid Dynasty.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">During the
reign of Duke Boleslav II (r. 967 – 999), Bohemia furthered its religious
autonomy along with continuing growth of Christianity. By 993, St. Adalbert
(Vojtech) founded Bohemia’s first monastery. Latin Liturgy continued to grow in
strength while Slavonic Liturgy retreated. By 1030, the Sazava Monaster founded
by Procop, served as the last bastion of Slavonic Liturgy until 1097. Bohemia’s
standing within the Christian world strengthened with the creation of the
Bishopric of Prague in 973 and in 974 with Bishop Thietmar as the first head. The Catholic Church of Bohemia broke away from the Bishopric of Bavaria. By 1063, a second
Bishopric established Olmutz that catered to the region of Moravia. Besides the
establishment of an independent Bishopric, the reign of Boleslav II also saw
the establishment of the first convent for Benedictine nuns, which his sister
Mlada oversaw. Christianity went in the forefront of scholasticism demonstrated
with the writing of the <i>Chronica
Bohemorum</i> of Dean Cosmas of Prague in the 12th century, the first Latin
chronicle of the Czech people. With the death of Boleslav II, however, internal
infighting within the House of Premyslid erupted. For more than a decade,
members of the house vied for supremacy until Duke Oldrich (Udalrich) (r. 1012
– 1033) won. With the lack of definite succession law, internal strife continued
to plague the house for several generations that hampered the growth of Bohemia
as a great power. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Under Duke
Oldrich, the Premyslid controlled Moravia and a few bits of Poland. However,
his son Duke Bratislav I (r. 1033 – 1055) decided to break the status quo of
Bohemia ending the Duchy's status as a vassal of the Holy Roman Empire and its ruler Henry III. He
suffered a defeat and swore his fealty in 1041 ending his attempt to gain
Bohemian independence. From then on, Premyslid Dukes build up their power
within the structure of the Holy Roman Empire. The Empire then exercised
influence in providing legitimacy and support during volatile successions
within Bohemia.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><b><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">From Dukes to Kings – Premyslid and the
Holy Roman Empire</span></b></div></b><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">As vassals
of the Holy Roman Empire, Dukes displayed their loyalty to the Holy Roman
Emperors in hope of gaining concessions and privileges. Eventually, their
support won the elevation of Premyslids and Bohemia from a Duchy to a Kingdom.
Nevertheless, old problems of successions remained a threat to all gains of the
Premyslid Dukes.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Duke
Vratislav II (r. 1061 – 1092) showed loyalty to Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV.
300 Bohemians fought for Henry in 1081. As a reward for his loyalty, Vrastislav
received a reward from Emperor Henry IV in 1085 during the Imperial Diet of
Mayence. His status elevated from Duke of Bohemia to King of Bohemia. An honor
and tremendous political development. Though a great achievement, the honor,
title, and status only lasted during the lifetime of Vratislav and not yet
hereditary. The Kingdom reverted back to a Duchy with the passing of Vratislav
II in 1092.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Despite
failure to attain a hereditary kingdom, the Premyslid Dukes attained in 1114
the hereditary post of Official Cupbearer (<i>Summus
pincerna</i>). Initially a ceremonial post, it later became an influential one
as it gave its bearer a position of an elector of King of Germany or Holy Roman
Emperor.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Premyslid
Dukes strove to attain the post of hereditary King of Bohemia. And the efforts
went not in vain. During the reign of Duke Vladislav II (r. 1140 – 1173), for
his military support to Emperor Frederick Barbarossa in Northern Italy, during
the 1158 Diet of Ratisbon, the Premyslids finally obtained the hereditary title
of King of Bohemia. The title further intensified infighting arousing from the
continuous lack of succession law. Some Dukes attempted to set up a clear line
of successions such as the case of Duke Bratislav I in 1055 with his Seniority
Basis which relied on the oldest member of the House. But until such rule
settled, the Premyslid Dynasty continued to fall to infighting which happened
after the death of Vladislav II.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">The
succession crisis descended the Kingdom into division. The lack of a central
authority encouraged the local nobility to muster their strength and to assert
their autonomy. In 1182, Emperor Frederick Barbarossa divided Bohemia severing
the Margravate of Moravia, and the Bishopric of Prague. For more than a decade,
Bohemia ceased to be united.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">In 1197, 2
sons of Vladislav II, the 1st King of Bohemia, Premysl Ottokar I and Vladislav
Henry (Vladislav II) decided that the former hold the position of Duke of
Bohemia while the latter as Margrave of Moravia. Ottokar I (r. 1197 – 1230) delved
with imperial politics after the death of Henry VI. He supported the candidacy
of Philip of Swabia who won and became King of Germany (failed to received
Papal approval and thus not a Holy Roman Emperor). As a reward, Ottokar
successfully regained the status of King. Fighting for the title of King of Germany
and the Papacy won the Premyslid numerous privileges. In exchange for
supporting the candidacy of Otto of Brunswick against Philip of Swabia, the
position of King became hereditary and affirmed by Pope Innocent III.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="font-size: x-large; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgrvjgGVDTx_BbfYTqDCuVT0Safhaooz-7bCzBbvvUCqqCyedU9Sjp-zwje2hTYt5md-DrHjGV_TrlfiNdiFlwnTsuw-dfnUBWcPpCV0r3Jt6MlvYErSG_wfToCzeqKaGRaP-o-QqWFBLs/s576/Depiction+of+Ottokar+I+%2528Left%2529.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="576" data-original-width="378" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgrvjgGVDTx_BbfYTqDCuVT0Safhaooz-7bCzBbvvUCqqCyedU9Sjp-zwje2hTYt5md-DrHjGV_TrlfiNdiFlwnTsuw-dfnUBWcPpCV0r3Jt6MlvYErSG_wfToCzeqKaGRaP-o-QqWFBLs/s320/Depiction+of+Ottokar+I+%2528Left%2529.jpg" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Depiction of Ottokar I (Left)</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">In 1212, the
Golden Bull of Sicily by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II gave right for the
Bohemians to elect their King, and the King the right to appoint officials of
the Bishopric of Prague and Olomutz. Lastly, it freed the Bohemian Kings from
the obligation of attending court. Finally, Ottokar I put an end to the
succession crises that plagued the Premyslid Dynasty on every death of a ruler,
in 1216 he adopted the practice of primogeniture. In 1231, the practice
successfully implemented as Ottokar I passed away and allowed the peaceful
succession of his son and heir Wenceslaus I.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><b><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">Premyslid Beyond Bohemia</span></b></div></b><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">With the
elevation of Bohemia as a hereditary Kingdom, it became a prominent player in
the international stage. Premyslid rulers then began to expand their influence
beyond Bohemia towards neighboring states setting the stage for the creation of
an Empire in all but name.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDDYKARP027dCP4Ja4eO-pfvsJ7sN7K_w853ZL_m_iedSOJGx2dZtjZq3rFj0wScNJU7Ms8ekVgtXjHKySnjUd9iqeUM62nkTROm6eZH-XvyL5JsVqteKC5vbyUHtfqnVfSwyNccgUORE/s1200/Wenceslaus+in+the+Codex+Gelnhausen+%2528early+15th+century%2529.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1200" data-original-width="800" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDDYKARP027dCP4Ja4eO-pfvsJ7sN7K_w853ZL_m_iedSOJGx2dZtjZq3rFj0wScNJU7Ms8ekVgtXjHKySnjUd9iqeUM62nkTROm6eZH-XvyL5JsVqteKC5vbyUHtfqnVfSwyNccgUORE/w266-h400/Wenceslaus+in+the+Codex+Gelnhausen+%2528early+15th+century%2529.jpg" width="266" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Wenceslaus in the <br />Codex Gelnhausen (early 15th century)</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">The most well-known international venture of the Premyslid Kings aimed towards Austria.
In 1237, war erupted between Wenceslas I and Babenberg Duke Frederick II of
Austria. The animosity between the 2 rulers began when the Austrian Duke married
off his Margaret of Austria to Henry, son of King of Germany Frederick II,
instead of a Premyslid Princess. A papal-brokered peace deal signed in 1239 led
to the engagement of Austrian Princess Gertrude to Bohemian Prince Vladislav.
Despite the engagement and peace, Bohemia and Austria's relation remained
strenuous. Only a Mongol invasion averted a full-scale war. When Frederick II
of Austria passed away in 1246, the marriage between Gertrude and Vladislav
took place giving the Premyslid a stake in the Duchy of Austria.</span></div><div style="font-size: x-large; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">A series of
deaths tipped the balance of power in Central Europe. Vladislav passed away in
1247 leaving Gertrude to marry Herman of Baden to maintain control of Austria.
In 1253, Vladislav’s brother Ottokar ascended to the Bohemian throne as Premysl
Ottokar II (r. 1253 – 1278) and took an expansionist policy staking his claim
to the Duchy of Austria. To cement his claim further, he married Margaret, the
sister of the late Duke Frederick. Through Margaret, Austria became a dominion
of the Premyslid and Ottokar II stood poised to take the neighboring Duchy of
Sytria. A fight for the Duchy with King Bela IV of Hungary ensued, but by 1260,
the Styrian nobles recognized Ottokar II as their overlord. With the addition
of Styria, the Duchies of Carinthia and the adjacent Carniola also bent their
knees to Ottokar. The Bohemian King, thus, effectively ruled over lands from
Poland to the Adriatic Sea – a virtual Bohemian Empire.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">In 1273,
however, Rudolf of the House of Habsburg became King of Germany by bypassing
Bohemian electoral rights. A collision between the Habsburgs and the Premyslids
then ensued. In the Imperial Diet in 1274 in Regensberg, Rudolf condemned
Ottokar’s territorial grabs and summoned the Bohemian ruler to show cause. For
2 years, Ottokar refused to face Rudolf who then declared all Premyslids gain
invalid. A war between the Premyslid and the Habsburg began. In 1276, Rudolf
invaded Austria, and with a rebellion in the Duchy, Ottokar decided to sue for
peace and successfully manage to keep Bohemia and Moravia. In 1278, Ottokar
enlisted the support of Hungary and decided to retake Austria. However, during
the Battle of Marchfeld on August 26, 1278, Ottokar II fell in battle and
Bohemia sued for peace.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="font-size: x-large; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgJbT4a9DoSCwuzC_pBi2eyf9Ol5hqIKZNrQ4Z95FbUHSMNK2-JbO_OAV9PKSeI0uFBdO7aJfJGMIcNVeRqlTzDZMxW9FfETqCxdx7BzkjW1XwAM_Br4oObvpSvSCaO7lI5-zgVp2KPzIY/s1024/P%25C5%2599emysl+Otakar+II+-+The+Union+of+Slavic+Dynasties.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="870" data-original-width="1024" height="544" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgJbT4a9DoSCwuzC_pBi2eyf9Ol5hqIKZNrQ4Z95FbUHSMNK2-JbO_OAV9PKSeI0uFBdO7aJfJGMIcNVeRqlTzDZMxW9FfETqCxdx7BzkjW1XwAM_Br4oObvpSvSCaO7lI5-zgVp2KPzIY/w640-h544/P%25C5%2599emysl+Otakar+II+-+The+Union+of+Slavic+Dynasties.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Přemysl Otakar II - The Union of Slavic Dynasties</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></div><b><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">Rise Again and Fall of the Premyslid
Dynasty</span></b></div></b><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">In 1278,
Ottokar II’s fall made his son <b><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2021/01/who-was-vaclav-ii-wenceslas-ii-of.html">King Vaclav II</a></b> (r. 1278 – 1305) a boy at the
head of a Kingdom. Under his reign, Bohemia bounced back from defeat in
Marchfeld and the Premyslid sowed their rule into 3 kingdoms. However, unexpected
deaths brought the demise of this Bohemian house.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Vaclav II,
only 7 years old, had a regency rule in his stead. However, the regent Otto V
of Brandenburg, Ottokar’s brother-in-law, mismanaged and even abused the
country. A group of nobles successfully negotiated Otto’s departure and an
ambitious noble named Zavis of Falkenstein took the reins of power. Zavis’
ambition, however, alerted King Rudolf pressuring Vaclav to the noble arrested
and executed in 1390. Under Vaclav’s rule, Bohemia made progress culturally, economically, and legally. Funded by the silver mines, which his
father who also came to be known as the King of Iron and Gold, developed.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="font-size: x-large; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgBxHG82zkueOQBTk6B_VvBu_T6j_7milxTBcb0LDa3bWbcu0R4OFcq4xWUqnWj86S6369aIXp7psKLKdsuj0fj6CWxWaNg_0AKd7iQNELj81GkwT_ovzZkiSdD9Np8rjVGnZCINZcq1Go/s645/Wenceslaus+II.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="645" data-original-width="400" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgBxHG82zkueOQBTk6B_VvBu_T6j_7milxTBcb0LDa3bWbcu0R4OFcq4xWUqnWj86S6369aIXp7psKLKdsuj0fj6CWxWaNg_0AKd7iQNELj81GkwT_ovzZkiSdD9Np8rjVGnZCINZcq1Go/w398-h640/Wenceslaus+II.jpg" width="398" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Vaclav II</span></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Vaclav then
worked to expand his sphere of influence. Blocked by the Habsburgs in Austria,
the Premyslid King looked towards Poland and Hungary. In the 1290s, with wealth
and strategic marriages, he took control of the Duchy of Krakow. Soon more
Polish nobles welcomed Vaclav who in 1300 became King Wenceslaus II of Poland.
In the following year, Hungary too looked for a new monarch. Fearing the ire of
the new King of Germany Albert I, he sent his son Vaclav instead to be the King
of Hungary becoming Ladislaus. His attempts to silently place Hungary in his
dominions failed and the King of Germany with the support of the Pope
challenged the Premysl claim to the Hungarian throne and attacked. By 1305,
Vaclav pulled his son out of Hungary and successfully repulsed an invasion of
Bohemia. But when he planned to launch a counter-invasion, he suddenly fell
ill and passed away.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">His son
Vaclav III then ruled Bohemia only for a year as in 1306 he had a date with
assassins leaving Bohemia with no heir. Thus, with an unexpected death, a half
of a millennium rule of Premyslids of Bohemia came to an end. At its place came
the House of Luxembourg in 1310.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><b><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">Summing Up</span></b></div></b><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">The
Premyslid dynasty laid down the early blocks of Czech history. From them
Bohemia witnessed the rise of Christianity and the entanglement of the lands to
western geopolitics. They oversaw the elevation of Bohemia from a mere Duchy,
to an elector in the Holy Roman Empire, and finally to a hereditary kingdom.
For a moment, the Premyslids built a central European Empire. But the balance of
power went against them and they failed to prevent the rise of the House of
Habsburg who survived to rule a part of Europe until 1918.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b>See also:</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2021/01/who-was-vaclav-ii-wenceslas-ii-of.html">Vaclav II</a></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Ottokar II</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b>Bibliography:</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Abulafia, David (ed.). T<i>he New Cambridge Medieval History, Volume V, c. 1198 - c. 1300</i>. New York, New York: Cambridge Unviersity Press, 1999.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Cornej, Petr & Jiri Pokorny. <i>A Brief History of the Czech Lands</i>. Prague: Prah Press, 2003.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Mahoney, William. <i>The History of the Czech Republic and Slovakia</i>. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood Press, 2011.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Tanner, J.R. <i>The Cambridge Medieval History, Volume VI: Victory of the Papacy</i>. London: Cambridge University Press, 1929.</span></div></span></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p>Bob Corcuerahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14748111488274035197noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3147004568822447450.post-63434572492918374382020-12-11T20:13:00.002+08:002020-12-11T20:13:21.368+08:006 Projects of the Self-Strengthening Movement<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><i><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiMq7x59u_VibY1cik6qpOpIvFaRlatNpfLJEA8TAuzDG28dLTL4Jd4bqnpEPdku8N2JBxX4sSHcr3TD38bZVq-SV5gIvFjs3HcwQj18-k3Ut2YUNNxiOMxDHPB-GxtHAXlT6gwiDIQTFs/s644/Hanyang+Arsenal.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="426" data-original-width="644" height="424" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiMq7x59u_VibY1cik6qpOpIvFaRlatNpfLJEA8TAuzDG28dLTL4Jd4bqnpEPdku8N2JBxX4sSHcr3TD38bZVq-SV5gIvFjs3HcwQj18-k3Ut2YUNNxiOMxDHPB-GxtHAXlT6gwiDIQTFs/w640-h424/Hanyang+Arsenal.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><br />In the 1860s with the country facing imminent collapse, the Tongzhi Restoration gave a sigh of relief for the ailing Qing Dynasty. After the Second Opium War and gains against numerous rebellions, prominent officials started the Self-Strengthening Movement aimed at developing the economy and modernizing the military. The Movement established several projects aimed to contribute to the country’s modernization.</i><a name='more'></a></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b><br /></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b>1. Kiangnan (Jiangnan) Arsenal</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhuUD4qHT8ShsRwJ-KqH6SXEcTZQoyI2vUgs1D6JaWWryihjoqcpjNNKvUZGyRnCQPYclkWzC1Os4G6PT8M9ZPok2X4s1bWqm3wSLi2f3bVqr8fo9omtc5gzUFoQBU5COspPFZYwqlYRJI/s1280/Gun+transportation+at+Kiangnan+Arsenal+in+Shanghai.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="943" data-original-width="1280" height="472" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhuUD4qHT8ShsRwJ-KqH6SXEcTZQoyI2vUgs1D6JaWWryihjoqcpjNNKvUZGyRnCQPYclkWzC1Os4G6PT8M9ZPok2X4s1bWqm3wSLi2f3bVqr8fo9omtc5gzUFoQBU5COspPFZYwqlYRJI/w640-h472/Gun+transportation+at+Kiangnan+Arsenal+in+Shanghai.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Gun transportation in Jiangnan Arsenal</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2020/11/self-strengthening-movement-and-qing.html"><b>The Self-Strengthening Movement</b></a> aimed to strengthen the military and promote the defense of national sovereignty against foreign incursions. Moreover, the promoters of the movement saw the effectiveness of modern weapons for fighting rebellions. Thus, many arsenals went up with the biggest and well knew being the Kiangnan or Jiangnan Arsenal in Shanghai.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;">The Jiangnan arsenal composed of a weapons manufacturing complex, translation institute, and western subject schools. Its productions lasted from the 1860s up to the 1930s.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;">Li Hongzhang and <b><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2020/12/who-was-zeng-guofan.html">Zeng Guofan</a></b> established the Jiangnan Arsenal in 1865 to produce weapons for the fight against the Taiping Rebellion. From an iron mill, it acquired machines from the nearby Suzhou Arsenal as well as new modern equipment bought from the United States. The facility also employed foreign technical experts to provide the necessary know-how. After the Taiping Rebellion ended, Jiangnan continued to operate and went into the forefront of the Self-Strengthening movement embodying its objectives – education and military modernization.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;">Jiangnan became the largest arsenal in China and one of the biggest in the world. At its peak, it employed 3,000 Chinese and paid 8 times higher than an average Chinese farmer or coolie.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: arial;">From weapons manufacturing, the military-industrial complex successfully expanded to shipbuilding in 1865 with the launching from its facility the 1st modern Chinese steamship, the </span><i style="font-family: arial;">Huiji.</i><span style="font-family: arial;"> By 1872, the Jiangnan shipyard finished 6 ships armed with 24-pounder howitzers. From 1865 to 1904, Jiangnan successfully launched 25 ships. The facility only experienced slow production of ships from 1875 to 1885 after concentrating resources in weapons manufacturing rather than shipbuilding which the Fuzhou Shipyard took over.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Besides its military purposes, the arsenal also hosted a translation center. Li Hongzhang and Zeng Guofan hired John Fryer from the </span><i style="font-family: arial;">Tongwen Guan</i><span style="font-family: arial;"> to direct the translation office. In its course, the center translated around 160 works from the west and Japan into the Chinese language.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;">The early 1900s spelled the decline of the Jiangnan Arsenal. In 1905, the shipyard became a separate body from the main arsenal. Jiangnan changed its name to Shanghai Arsenal and remain in operation until the 1930s.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b>2. Fuzhou Shipyard</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b><br /></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhWwz4mOdX77MxP8bSsQ4juPgHcaTV7o11y0eJyJG4zUYdJCwueIlJl4L-AuaVP5oGLeJTLSiVdHGW932cAtDli9lPW8fH2g-XGSVFaKH1PN8A709k2_cwpoyh6o07jGnc8s3mq57IaSZY/s690/Fuzhou+Arsenal.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="474" data-original-width="690" height="440" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhWwz4mOdX77MxP8bSsQ4juPgHcaTV7o11y0eJyJG4zUYdJCwueIlJl4L-AuaVP5oGLeJTLSiVdHGW932cAtDli9lPW8fH2g-XGSVFaKH1PN8A709k2_cwpoyh6o07jGnc8s3mq57IaSZY/w640-h440/Fuzhou+Arsenal.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Fuzhou Arsenal</span></td></tr></tbody></table><b><br /></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Fuzhou Navy Yard or Shipyard went into the forefront of Chinese navy modernization. Organized by Zuo Zongtang in 1866, it began to produce ships with French technology provided by Prosper Giquiel and Paul D’Aiguebelle who fought alongside government forces during the Taiping Rebellion. In 1867, the shipyard received orders to produce 16 ships with the first coming out in 1869, the <i>Wan Nian Qing</i> (“Ten Thousand-year Qing Dynasty). By 1873, it already produced 11 warships of different classes and sizes, from corvette to gunboats. In the next decade, from 1874 to 1885, it delivered 7 more ships.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;">By the 1880s, the shipyard faced financial difficulties stemming from unstable capital. Under General Zuo, the shipyard obtained capital from contributions from different provinces. However, with the death of Zuo, the steady stream of contributions ended and balance sheets tipped towards losses. Furthermore, officials of the shipyard failed to recognize the high maintenance cost of steamships that strained the budget. Corruption and bureaucratic red tape exacerbated the Shipyard’s condition.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;">The Fuzhou Shipyard’s facility went up in flames during the Battle of Fuzhou during the Sino-French War that put an end to Zuo Zongtang’s contribution to the Self-Strengthening Movement.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b>3. China Merchants’ Steam Navigation Company</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b><br /></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi_KTl2DB9v0Jc5M_3fwK3DW8keE_bHUJoLGwdS5ECe5fMxDarPmlXAdxucniNb3OV-8Jx6irK3yJo-QkjkOZUrpI8g2iB8rb2BD67D5JcOdGDQl2OrDd_8_4uZCtZfL-0Xov0jVkWtriw/s599/412px-Li_Hung_Chang_in_1896.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="599" data-original-width="412" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi_KTl2DB9v0Jc5M_3fwK3DW8keE_bHUJoLGwdS5ECe5fMxDarPmlXAdxucniNb3OV-8Jx6irK3yJo-QkjkOZUrpI8g2iB8rb2BD67D5JcOdGDQl2OrDd_8_4uZCtZfL-0Xov0jVkWtriw/w440-h640/412px-Li_Hung_Chang_in_1896.jpg" width="440" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Li Hongzhang</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br />Established on December 16, 1872, Li Hongzhang established the China Merchant’s Steam Navigation Company to embody his idea of <i>Fuqiang</i> or “wealth and power” establishing profitable industries to finance the “Self-Strengthening” initiatives. It meant to reintroduce Chinese competition in the foreign-dominated domestic coastal and riverine trade. The company also became an example of a pattern of business management known as <i>guandu shangban</i> or “official supervision, merchant management” where an official takes the executive role while providing guidelines to the merchant tasked to oversee daily operations.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">To truly represent China, 80% ownership of the company came from Chinese investment. Affluent wealthy businessmen from Shanghai and Canton invested so as Li Hongzhang himself. While Li took the position of official supervisor, the position of merchant fell to Tang Tishu (Tong King-sing) whose leadership saw the company’s rapid expansion from 1872 to 1884. Under the duo, the company exploited Li’s positions as Superintendent of Northern Trade and gained a monopoly in the shipping along the Grand Canal. It also enjoyed a monopoly in riverine and coastal transport of annual grain tribute from the Yangtze valley to Beijing.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;">For all the monopolies and efforts, the company soon expanded its routes to reach Japan and Southeast Asia. In 1876, it already owned a mercantile fleet of 12 ships manned by British and American captains. In 1877, it further expanded its shipping assets three-fold when it absorbed ships from the defunct American Shanghai Steam Navigation Company.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;">The 1880s, however, witnessed the Company spiraling downwards. Mismanagement of profits resulted in its bankruptcy in 1883. Moreover, its driver Tong King-sing transferred to the Kaiping Mining Company. In 1885, Sheng Xuanhuai succeeded Tong King-sing as the general manager of the company leading its reorganization. However, under his watch, the company continued to decline as corruption flourished. The company continued to operate as a virtual state-owned enterprise until 1911 when it decided to sever ties with the government and become a private entity.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">4. Kaiping Coal Mine</span></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><b><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiPBCU-9q1oHZsw73LURd-gqLx6x0Gpy5RT9JcOwXJqm3Qrs3QqZep5g1N5jZOyDSiVGHeQy8JQjUNBqmh_wbi1gPr3rqM7nrL8lvhjOYeVm2Pi-bxexCe3QAaXnmV32qwsv8DPOwiFYbU/s600/Beiyang+Fleet+in+Wiehaiwei.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="398" data-original-width="600" height="424" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiPBCU-9q1oHZsw73LURd-gqLx6x0Gpy5RT9JcOwXJqm3Qrs3QqZep5g1N5jZOyDSiVGHeQy8JQjUNBqmh_wbi1gPr3rqM7nrL8lvhjOYeVm2Pi-bxexCe3QAaXnmV32qwsv8DPOwiFYbU/w640-h424/Beiyang+Fleet+in+Wiehaiwei.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Beiyang Fleet in Wiehaiwei</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br />Coal powered the Industrial Revolution of the 19th century, and in an effort to develop modern industries, China looked towards the Kaiping Mines. Coal mining already began in Kaiping during the 16th century. However, it grew to a massive scale after Tong King-sing, a Cantonese businessman and general manager of the China Merchant’s Steam Navigation Company worked with Li Hongzhang to develop China’s coal industry with the establishment of the Kaiping Mining Administration, and later Kaiping Coal Mining Company. In 1877, the coal mining project received funding from Beijing worth 800,000 Taels. The Kaiping Mines became China’s first modern mine utilizing British and Australian mining industry practices and technology. From 100-ton output in its first year, it grew to a staggering 732,000 tons in 1898.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: arial;">The company, like the China Merchant’s Steam Navigation Company, also operated as a </span><i style="font-family: arial;">guandu shangban</i><span style="font-family: arial;">. Li Hongzhang took the position of a government official while Tong King-sing serving as general manager. With close ties to the government, the Company easily supplied coals to the ports of northern China, to the Chinese navy’s Beiyang Fleet, as well as Shanghai.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: arial;">In 1882, the Company faced a logistical challenge brought by increasing demand. Initially, coals went from Tangshan to Xueguezhuang (Fengnan) by horse, then to Nighe (Lutai) by a canal, before going to Tianjin by the Jiyun River. Li then planned a railroad to Tanggu, in the outskirts of Tianjin, to make the transport of coal efficient and fast. Local opposition furthered from arguments on the mines’ disrespect of </span><i style="font-family: arial;">feng shui</i><span style="font-family: arial;"> to the railroad's potential impact on local employment. Despite criticism, Li proceeded with the railroad construction from 1882 to 1888 and utilized China’s first domestically built locomotive.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">In 1895, Li hired Gustav Detring as a consultant for the Kaiping Mines and in 1900 Chang Yenmao took over as General Manager. Together they contributed to the survival of the company during the Boxer War when Russian forces occupied Kaiping’s facilities and threatened to take over. In 1901, the company negotiated with the future American President Herbert Hoover who represented the British company Bewick, Morein, & Co. to form the Chinese Engineering and Mining Company, an Anglo-Chinese joint-stock company with 2 boards of directors with 1 in China and another in England. However, Bewick, Morein, & Co. dominated the company after owning 625,000 shares out of a million becoming the majority shareholder and owner of the company.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">5. Shanghai Cotton Cloth Mill</span></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><b><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg4Xbj7_9CQxVZPD7s3JO7d6Ey2R-Hl80mSkGMMQ5eTjZNrvUNqiC46WswaFjqxBQvjEQEwwIZ35oX9pKStDMI3rSpetsOrhi-LEjIuUpErAGPIi6t0HsigdmrnjFCjeZNGRr_jdAYGC6c/s468/Nanjing+Road%252C+Shanghai%252C+1930s.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-size: large;"><img border="0" data-original-height="333" data-original-width="468" height="456" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg4Xbj7_9CQxVZPD7s3JO7d6Ey2R-Hl80mSkGMMQ5eTjZNrvUNqiC46WswaFjqxBQvjEQEwwIZ35oX9pKStDMI3rSpetsOrhi-LEjIuUpErAGPIi6t0HsigdmrnjFCjeZNGRr_jdAYGC6c/w640-h456/Nanjing+Road%252C+Shanghai%252C+1930s.jpg" width="640" /></span></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: xx-small;">Nanjing Road, Shanghai, 1930s</span></td></tr></tbody></table><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;">Industrialization led to the mass production of textile and the same happened to China. In a quest for profitable business, in 1877, Zheng Guanying formulated a plan to develop a cotton mill in Shanghai. Thus, the Shanghai Cotton Cloth Mill represented Chinese competition in the production of cheap cotton products dominated by industrialized products of foreign powers.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;">Li Hongzhang noticed and supported the plan. He then teamed up to develop the Shanghai Cotton Cloth Mill initially founded by Peng Ruzong and expanded as a joint-stock company. Thus, it raised capital of 500,000 taels from various wealthy Chinese businessmen besides the 325,000 taels personal investment from Zheng Guanying. The company hired the American A.W. Danforth to assist in formulating a modern business plan incorporating the latest business practices. Soon the mill began to produce cloth in small quantities. It also received a lucrative 10-year monopoly in cotton milling in the region. However, a conflict with the United States prevented the realization of the mill’s potential throughout the 1880s worsen by the break out of the Sino-French War of 1884 and 1885. It failed to reach full capacity until December 24, 1889. By then, the company also saw leadership changes, from Zheng Guanying who served as general manager from 1882 to 1884, to the famous Qing industrialist Sheng Xuanhuai.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;">Sheng oversaw the exponential growth of the Shanghai Cotton Cloth Mill. Under him, the company’s annual production reached a peak of 4 million yards by 1892. Tragically, a fire broke out in the mill in 1893 destroying much of its facilities. In its place, the Huasheng Cotton Mill rose, but it failed to reach the same success as the Shanghai Cotton Cloth Mill as the 1897 Shimonoseki Treaty opened the region for foreign direct investments translating to tough competition.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">6. Han-Ye-Ping Iron and Coal Company</span></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><b><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjC0PpkNM3YMxNT11x_oV5P23-mLq8C9SGS9zRr0tfx-kzSsYzMFV78S8h7ZNSLRl_t1Tdn8w1n3GPiZvYftjMJpgT-CYRxZc4IdgI-Wy5Y0I2R5McMLVwkubuBvkwsMqtLSUClf2y20Z8/s673/Hanyang+Iron+Works+and+Arsenal.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-size: large;"><img border="0" data-original-height="307" data-original-width="673" height="292" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjC0PpkNM3YMxNT11x_oV5P23-mLq8C9SGS9zRr0tfx-kzSsYzMFV78S8h7ZNSLRl_t1Tdn8w1n3GPiZvYftjMJpgT-CYRxZc4IdgI-Wy5Y0I2R5McMLVwkubuBvkwsMqtLSUClf2y20Z8/w640-h292/Hanyang+Iron+Works+and+Arsenal.png" width="640" /></span></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: xx-small;">Location of the Hanyang Iron and Steel Works, 1930s</span></td></tr></tbody></table><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Han-Ye-Ping Iron and Coal Company represented one of the largest industrial projects of the Self-Strengthening Movement. The brainchild of the Viceroy of Huguang <b><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2020/10/the-8-things-to-know-about-zhang-zhidong.html">Zhang Zhidong</a></b>, it began as the Hanyang Iron and Steel Works and the Daye Iron Mines founded in 1889.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;">Both projects aimed to support the construction of the Hankow-Beijing Railroad Line, supervised by Zhang Zhidong. Its capital stood at 5.6 million Taels and hired Gustav Toppe to provide technical advice for the company.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;">The facilities in Hanyang laid in a strategic location where the Han and the Yangtze Rivers meet providing it with convenient means of transportation and logistics. Furthermore, the facility also hosted ports, railroads, and an arsenal, the oldest modern of its kind in China, making Hanyang an industrial hub.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;">The iron and steelworks, however, suffered from tremendous problems. First, it faced a shortage of coke need for the processing of steel. Second, financial problems from astronomical operation cost confronted the company. It even had to take bailouts from the government and profits from other profitable government companies reaching 4 million Taels just to survive. This led to the privatization of the ironworks in 1895 and Sheng Xuanhuai once again took the position of general manager.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;">Under Sheng, the company forged a 15-year agreement with the Yawata Works of Japan for a trade of 50,000 tons of iron ore from Daye for 40,000 tons of Japanese coke. Entanglement with the Japanese furthered in the 1910s. In 1908, the Hanyang Iron Works, Daye Iron Ore Mines, and the Pingxiang Coal Mines reorganized to form the Han-Ye-Ping Iron and Coal Company. It, however, continued to face financial difficulty as well as corruption and by 1913, Japanese creditors took over the company.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b>See also:</b></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;">Self-Strengthening Movement</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: x-large;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><b>Bibliography:</b></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b>Books:</b></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Andrade, Tonio. <i>The Gunpowder Age: China, Military Innovation, and the
Rise of the West in World History</i>. Woodstock, Oxfordshire: Princeton University
Press, 2016.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br />Beckert, Sven. <i>Empire of Cotton: A Global History</i>. New York, New York:
Alfred A. Knopf, 2014.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br />Cowan, C.D. <i>The Economic Development of China and Japan</i>. London: George
Allen & Unwin, Ltd., 1964.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br />Koll, Elisabeth. <i>From Cotton Mill to Business Empire: The Emergence of
Regional Enterprises in Modern China</i>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard
University Press, 2003.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Roberts, J.A.G. <i>A History of China</i>. New York, New York: A Concise History of China, 1999.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br />Yonekura, Seiichiro. <i>The Japanese Iron and Steel Industry, 1850 – 1990:
Continuity and Discontinuity</i>. New York, New York: St. Martin’s Press, Inc.,
1994.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b>General References:</b><br />"China Merchants Steam Navigation Company." Encyclopedia of Western Colonialism since 1450. <i>Encyclopedia.com</i>. Accessed on October 16, 2020. https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/china-merchants-steam-navigation-company</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">“Fuzhou Dockyard.” <i>Dictionary of Contemporary Chinese Military History</i>. Edited by Larry Wortzel. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1999.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br />“Jiangnan Arsenal.” <i>Dictionary of Contemporary Chinese Military History</i>. Edited by Larry Wortzel. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1999.</span></div></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Corfield, Justin. “China Merchants’ Steam Navigation Company.” <i>The
Encyclopedia of the Industrial Revolution in World History</i>. Edited by Kenneth
Hendrickson et. al. New York, New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2015.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">_____________. “Kaiping Mining Company.” <i>The Encyclopedia of the
Industrial Revolution in World History</i>. Edited by Kenneth Hendrickson et. al.
New York, New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2015.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br />____________. “Shanghai Cotton Cloth Mill.” <i>The Encyclopedia of the
Industrial Revolution in World History</i>. Edited by Kenneth Hendrickson et. al.
New York, New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2015.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br />Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. “Jiangnan Arsenal.” <i>Encyclopedia
Britannica</i>. Accessed on October 25, 2020. URL: https://www.britannica.com/topic/Jiangnan-Arsenal<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> <br /> </span><br /></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">___________________________. “Tangshan.” <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>.
Accessed on October 25, 2020. URL: https://www.britannica.com/place/Tangshan#ref1001034<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><span style="font-size: x-large;"></span></div>Bob Corcuerahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14748111488274035197noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3147004568822447450.post-26744336856615874412020-12-08T17:35:00.000+08:002020-12-08T17:35:32.015+08:00Who was Zeng Guofan?<div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg9TX8FOUA6OmdBJSjME7iqOBa0Ewbc790Ol7PvvL-scF_WV45ARlLwYr9pCF2otmiKWh78hFsktRWh42kB8vUdTa0Wxw8_M_V283xrNSAu2e7FPWRcL_hSr37Xdf4LTELcVF692S3bRpw/s764/Zeng+Guofan%252C+1871.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="764" data-original-width="580" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg9TX8FOUA6OmdBJSjME7iqOBa0Ewbc790Ol7PvvL-scF_WV45ARlLwYr9pCF2otmiKWh78hFsktRWh42kB8vUdTa0Wxw8_M_V283xrNSAu2e7FPWRcL_hSr37Xdf4LTELcVF692S3bRpw/s320/Zeng+Guofan%252C+1871.jpg" /></a></div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><i>Zheng Guofan (November 26, 1811 – March 12, 1872) lived as an
intellectual, military commander, and statesman. He fought and defeated the
largest and most brutal rebellion in history. While as a statesman, he
dedicated his life to his country’s revival and hoped for a better China, one
capable of defending itself from imperialism.</i><span><a name='more'></a></span></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: left;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b><br /></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b>Early Life</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Zheng Guofan, born on November 26, 1811, came from Xiangxiang
(modern-day Shuangfeng), Hunan Province. He came from a poor yet ambitious
peasant family. His grandfather Zheng Yu pushed for their family’s elevation in
society by having kins pass the civil service exam. The young Zheng
Guofan then delved with the classics, studying at the Yuelu Academy in Shanhua,
Hunan to prepare for the exams. During his time in the academy, his eyes open
in the paradigm shift in administration, from the expertise of Confucian classics
to practicality and realpolitik.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">In 1833, Zheng Guofan passed the prefectural examinations, a year after
his father passed as well. Then in 1834, he also scored well in the provincial
examination. The exams in Beijing that he took in 1835, however, proved to be
too much and he failed. It took him about 3 years before finally passing the
exams and gleefully attained the coveted <i>Jinshi</i>
degree.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Early Career</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Zeng Guofan then began to work for the government after obtaining his
Jinshi Degree. He came in at a time when the court descended into chaos opening
the period known as the century of humiliation. But, a death in the family
thrust him into the forefront of the unfolding decline.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj0eMxZnXAEQ-LkeS1YmfswJw267Zh0aJFEk5JZeg5O3d1kyDuVZdrGwuR3dwqCK_7zbwIKYAIwemqLKUq14ayIpvQ08iCY-wNIKmNEh-hYVGMc94LiidTmuQF830r45cyilYrGVocNzW4/s646/Hanlin+Academy.+Reign+of+Qianlong+Emperor.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="299" data-original-width="646" height="296" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj0eMxZnXAEQ-LkeS1YmfswJw267Zh0aJFEk5JZeg5O3d1kyDuVZdrGwuR3dwqCK_7zbwIKYAIwemqLKUq14ayIpvQ08iCY-wNIKmNEh-hYVGMc94LiidTmuQF830r45cyilYrGVocNzW4/w640-h296/Hanlin+Academy.+Reign+of+Qianlong+Emperor.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Hanlin Academy. Reign of Qianlong Emperor</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">His early career as a scholar-official concentrated on the continuous
study of the classics. In June 1838, he entered the Hanlin Academy devoting
much of his time and energy to studying revered Confucian works at the behest of
the imperial court. He stayed throughout the 1840s gaining a credential of a
traditionalist. In 1849, he finally received a new highly regarded appointment
as Junior Vice President of the Board of Ceremonies (or Rituals). This then
followed by series of appointment as Vice President to the Board of Defense,
Board of Works, Board of Justice, and Board of Finance. All of which taught him
the ways of politics and administration. He learned to draft memorials that
positively appealed to the Emperor. Skills he all later used to become an
efficient and well-regarded official.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgVU-S0n0YvOgxigLPRizWGVNTd2CzhoGNlIhix_-hki4iVznuYVqWj_Y4qKfcmIi5IgyllXUdFgxLOxXhdtgTAW5DJY3Xqwg9bP6XmYgxKns6cjWcMO15OTHwjv9-igSl_1pkPUepYe6k/s396/Hong+Xiuquan.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="396" data-original-width="349" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgVU-S0n0YvOgxigLPRizWGVNTd2CzhoGNlIhix_-hki4iVznuYVqWj_Y4qKfcmIi5IgyllXUdFgxLOxXhdtgTAW5DJY3Xqwg9bP6XmYgxKns6cjWcMO15OTHwjv9-igSl_1pkPUepYe6k/s320/Hong+Xiuquan.jpg" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Hong Xiuquan, leader of the Taipings</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">In 1850, he witnessed the court’s
chaos amidst the arrival of grim reports from central China. A Chinese
Christian sect known as Taiping rose up in rebellion. The Taiping rebellion
that lasted from 1850 to 1871 exposed the internal weakness of China. The
rebels successfully defeated the traditional imperial armies, the Eight-Banner
Armies and the Green Standard Army. Soon, the rebels held vast sways of land
and threatened the foundations of the ruling Manchu Qing Dynasty. In all of
this, Zeng criticized failed imperial policies that led to the rebellion.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">In 1852, Zeng received the appointment of a proctor of the provincial
civil service examination in Jiangxi Province when he later received sad news from home. His mother passed away and it forced him to go on leave, return home, and observe the traditional 3-year mourning period. Upon his homecoming, he found
his province of Hunan embroiled in a battle against advancing Taiping forces.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b>Military Career</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Under dire circumstances, local militia groups replaced the
Eight-Banner and Green Standard soldiers as vanguards against the rebels. The
court observed and recognized this, thus encouraged the formation of similar
units throughout the embattled regions. Zeng, a prominent official, received a
request from the Emperor to lead the militias to fight against the rebels.
Zeng’s colleagues also urged him to take up the mantles of leadership. The
Hunanese scholar-official, however, declined with his mourning as the primary reason.
Nevertheless, the continuous urging and encouragement made Zeng reluctantly
agree to lead and organize the local militias.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Zeng then led the local militias that grew to become the celebrated
Xiang or Hunan Army or some others dubbed as the Hunan Braves. Zeng saw
training and motivations as key factors in building an army strong enough to
fight the Taiping rebels. Firstly, Zeng believed that to build a motivated
military force, it must be loyal. Developing loyalty to Emperor, however, takes
time and the disastrous rebellion already made it harder. Zeng sacrificed
loyalty to the Emperor for loyalty to himself. He also tapped regionalism and
familial affinities to serve as a cause to fight for as well as the basis for raising
units for his army. Fighting for the safety of one’s village or family seemed a
greater motivation for troops than fighting for an Emperor miles away never
been seen and tucked inside the Forbidden City. Zeng recruited commanders
locally and tasked these commanders to recruit their troops locally as well.
Thus, the dismissal of a commander also led to the disbandment of his unit. His
army’s personal loyalty, however, led to unintended disastrous consequences as
soldiers began to fight for their general rather than their nation sowing the
seeds of the Age of Warlordism in the late 1910s and 1920s – an age that
dismembered China.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhTJbll9AKfgYp7VnAkMJiKG_Bne6vJJ6AO22oPlFhMX05CbFBVzwX8V2Hrh2gsbu-vWTOCqY_n27UDhdFjt88uioPZCx6h8UOAwqT6U0ey3W4yt1yk9A5Z56u9a9tSRgu6J3uSqhIHWoQ/s779/Chinese+Imperial+Army+Troops.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="607" data-original-width="779" height="311" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhTJbll9AKfgYp7VnAkMJiKG_Bne6vJJ6AO22oPlFhMX05CbFBVzwX8V2Hrh2gsbu-vWTOCqY_n27UDhdFjt88uioPZCx6h8UOAwqT6U0ey3W4yt1yk9A5Z56u9a9tSRgu6J3uSqhIHWoQ/w400-h311/Chinese+Imperial+Army+Troops.png" width="400" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Chinese Imperial Army Troops, 1867</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Besides motivation and loyalty, Zeng also focused on his forces
training. He established training camps to further elevate the capacity of
experienced militiamen. He also set up recruitment offices in every district to
levy men. He sent his units to fight local bandits to gain combat experience as
well as to secure supply lines and re-establish law and order in
government-controlled regions. Despite the Emperor’s demands for Zeng to send
his forces to the frontlines immediately, he refused to send half-baked troops
and bought time until the training ends. He also built a riverine fleet along
with the marines to support land forces in fighting the Taipings in cities and
towns along the Yangtze River. Moreover, Zeng’s forces also began to train in
modern weapons. After seeing the efficiency of modern firepower by the foreign
powers during the Opium War as well as the foreign Ever Victorious Army
defending Shanghai. Zeng, a traditionalist, saw the practicality of using the
latest weaponry. With training and modern weaponry, Zeng’s Hunan army numbered 120,000 men ready and able to fight the Taiping rebels.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">In 1854, Zeng’s Hunan Army saw action. The initial battles that the
army fought, however, ended in defeat. Zeng disappointed with his army’s flop
debut on the battlefield contemplated suicide. But in July 1854, his luck
turned for the better with his forces capturing the city of Yuzhou. Since then,
his forces effectively battled the Taipings. In February 1857, his father
passed away forcing him out of the battlefront to undergo once again the
traditional 3-year mourning period. Despite his absence, his forces stood well.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Despite advances in the front, Zeng continued to face hurdles in
financing and supplying his forces. Initially, the task of funding the Hunan
Army fell to the imperial treasury, but the war in the tax-rich Central Plains
which also the main theater of the Taiping Rebellion resulted in dismal
revenue. This then turned to inadequate pay for Zeng’s army who in response
relied on voluntary donations. Only in 1860 with his appointment as Viceroy of
Liangjiang and as Imperial Commissioner to fight the Taiping did Zeng secured
the badly needed funds.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">In 1861, fighting flared up again with increasing ferocious Taiping
attacks in various provinces. Zeng received numerous pleas for assistance and
threatened to overwhelm the Hunan Army. Furthermore, the crescendo of the
Second Opium War distracted the imperial government so much so the Emperor fled
the Forbidden City for the safety of the traditional hunting grounds of Jehol.
Zeng decided to establish 3 military districts under the command of his trusted
and abled colleagues. He himself took the Anhui Province, while he assigned the
Zhejiang Province to Zho Zongtang, and the Jiangsu Province to his protégé Li
Hongzhang. Each built their forces based on the Hunan Army to battle the
Taipings. By September 5, 1861, Zeng’s forces captured Anqing after which they
drafted plans for the capture of Nanking.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEie5P4c5U_VFbXxTEP2x58ja2XUpT3a494PcnI3qJpxsjstXCSsvseY-dywZwoT0NnY7IEhsJ1aOA95Re61YOhkMV-YnBpGesERwW_oX2fmI-YtUu1dhSZv5LPdAXDI4__qrBh8lD9Vk3s/s1280/Imperial+force+retaking+Nanjing.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="744" data-original-width="1280" height="373" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEie5P4c5U_VFbXxTEP2x58ja2XUpT3a494PcnI3qJpxsjstXCSsvseY-dywZwoT0NnY7IEhsJ1aOA95Re61YOhkMV-YnBpGesERwW_oX2fmI-YtUu1dhSZv5LPdAXDI4__qrBh8lD9Vk3s/w640-h373/Imperial+force+retaking+Nanjing.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Imperial force retaking Nanjing</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">In March 1864, Zeng’s Hunan Army began their attack on the capital of
the Taipings Nanking. For several months the battle raged until July when the
defenders capitulated. The fall of Nanking marked the end of the bloody Taiping
Rebellion that claimed 25 million lives. As a reward for his exceptional contributions,
Zeng Guofan received the peerage of Marquis of Yiyong, the first civil servant
to receive such honors.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">With the war over, Zeng disbanded the Hunan Army to calm any concerns
of a strong military force that might be used against the dynasty demonstrating
his loyalty to the Emperor. He then supervised the reconstruction of Central
China.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b>Later Career and Self-Strengthening Movement</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">During and after the Taiping Rebellion, Zeng received a wave of high
ranking appointments. From 1860 to 1864, he served as Viceroy of Liangjiang.
1867, he received the appointment of Grand Secretary and in 1868 became the Viceroy
of Zhili in 1868 which he held until 1870. He then received his 2nd appointment
as Viceroy of Liangjiang and held the position until 1872.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Zeng’s military career, however, continued when in May 1865, he
received his appointment as Commander of the imperial forces fighting the Nian
Rebels. In this stint, however, he failed to make significant gains and decided
to resign in October 1866 in favor of his talented protégé Li Hongzhang.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi_KTl2DB9v0Jc5M_3fwK3DW8keE_bHUJoLGwdS5ECe5fMxDarPmlXAdxucniNb3OV-8Jx6irK3yJo-QkjkOZUrpI8g2iB8rb2BD67D5JcOdGDQl2OrDd_8_4uZCtZfL-0Xov0jVkWtriw/s599/412px-Li_Hung_Chang_in_1896.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="599" data-original-width="412" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi_KTl2DB9v0Jc5M_3fwK3DW8keE_bHUJoLGwdS5ECe5fMxDarPmlXAdxucniNb3OV-8Jx6irK3yJo-QkjkOZUrpI8g2iB8rb2BD67D5JcOdGDQl2OrDd_8_4uZCtZfL-0Xov0jVkWtriw/s320/412px-Li_Hung_Chang_in_1896.jpg" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Li Hongzhang</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Besides military and civil administration positions, Zeng also supported
the so-called <a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2020/11/self-strengthening-movement-and-qing.html"><b>Self-Strengthening Movement</b></a>, an initiative by many local
officials to promote education, translation, industrialization, and military modernization.
To this end, in 1864 and 1865, he established printing offices in Nanjing,
Suzhou, Yangzhou, Hangzhou, and Wuchang to reprint Chinese classics and
histories becoming known as “the 5 Official Printing Offices.” He also
rehabilitated the local education system by restoring the civil service examination
which ceased due to the Taiping Rebellion. Lastly, he listened to the advice of
western-educated Yale-graduate Yung Wing’s proposal to send students to study
overseas. On August 18, 1871, with Li Hongzhang they submitted a memorial
proposing the sending of students abroad.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">In terms of military modernization and rearmament, Zeng’s support
played a vital role in the establishment of the biggest and well-known arsenals
of the Self-Strengthening Movement. Even during the time of the Taiping
Rebellion, Zeng ordered the establishment of small arsenals near Shanghai to
provide modern weapons for imperial forces. After the rebellion, he sent Yung Wing to purchase machines overseas and his memorials resulted in the
foundation of the Jiangnan Arsenal that became China’s largest military-industrial complex that continued operation until the 1930s and became the home
of China’s first built steamship. He also supported Zho Zongtang in his efforts
for the establishment of the Fuzhou Shipyard that became a center of the
Chinese navy’s modernization.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b>Demise</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">In 1870, Zeng oversaw the handling of the Tianjin Massacre that
threatened conflict between France and China. French Consul Henri Fontanier
shot dead a Chinese resulting in massive riots that claimed the lives of 10
French Catholic nuns, 2 priests, as well as a handful of foreigners. Aware of
Chinese military weakness and the overwhelming French military might, Zeng
moved to punish the perpetrators to the dismay of the people and many
conservatives. His actions led to his retirement being succeeded by Li
Hongzhang who continued his work.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">On March 12, 1872, Zeng Guofan passed away in Nanjing without a tremendous
wealth living in simplicity, humility, and frugality. He became a role model
official devoted to the service of the country giving much of his salary to his
relatives rather than amassing wealth like his protégé Li Hongzhang. His humility
became legendary founded on self-awareness strengthened by his practice of
recording his mistakes every night. In his death, the court honored him with
the titles Grand Tutor and Wenxiang “the Learned and Accomplished.”</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b>Summing Up</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Zeng Guofan stood a giant amidst the declining years of the imperial
China. He delayed for several decades the collapse of the Qing Dynasty and
achieved a victory against the largest rebellion that China faced for
centuries. Despite his glories and military might, he remained humble
disbanding his army and concentrating on his administrative duties. His
frugality and proposals demonstrated his devotion to his service to the country
becoming an ideal Confucian official.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b>See also:</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2020/10/the-8-things-to-know-about-zhang-zhidong.html">Zhang Zhidong</a></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2020/11/self-strengthening-movement-and-qing.html">The Self-Strengthening Movement</a></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b>Bibliography:</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b><br /></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b>Book:</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Hail, William James. <i>Tseng Kuo-fan and the Taiping Rebellion, With a
Short Sketch of his Later Career</i>. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1927.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b>General References:</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Teng Ssu-Yu. “Tseng Kuo-fan.” <i>Eminent Chine of the Ch’ing Period
(1644-1912), Volume 2</i>. Edited by Arthur Hummel. Washington DC: United States
Government Printing Office, 1944.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">“Zheng Guofan.” <i>Encyclopedia of China: History and Culture</i>. Edited by
Dorothy Perkins. New York, New York: Routledge, 1999.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Li Xiaobing. “Zheng Guofan (Tseng Kuo-fan).” <i>China at War: An
Encyclopedia</i>. Edited by Xiaobing Li. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2012.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b>Websites:</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">"Tseng Kuo-fan." <i>Encyclopedia of World Biography</i>.
Encyclopedia.com. Accessed on December 5, 2020. URL:
https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/tseng-kuo-fan</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;">Hsieh, Shan-Yuan. “Zeng Guofan.” <i>Encyclopedia
Britannica</i>. Accessed December 5, 2020. URL: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Zeng-Guofan</span></span></div></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p>
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Bob Corcuerahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14748111488274035197noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3147004568822447450.post-66597273346745130582020-12-06T20:08:00.003+08:002020-12-08T19:21:49.355+08:00Accounts: Yung Wing Describing Zeng Guofan<div style="text-align: justify;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEidBL__Cw2FIRByOajQpMrSz10G9JExtqm8K7z70pjskrHF88ex9GD7GYIT1q_wi0TPa1j40OBoFN2cFL7qc5fKfcysGe4USnpC4Pwkrt3ShRsleRp6Bc0OXqzL6VHggi9BhrKZ-dxVlec/s656/Yung+Wing.png" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="656" data-original-width="451" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEidBL__Cw2FIRByOajQpMrSz10G9JExtqm8K7z70pjskrHF88ex9GD7GYIT1q_wi0TPa1j40OBoFN2cFL7qc5fKfcysGe4USnpC4Pwkrt3ShRsleRp6Bc0OXqzL6VHggi9BhrKZ-dxVlec/w275-h400/Yung+Wing.png" width="275" /></a></div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><i>In 1863, Yung Wing or Rong Hong, the earliest known Chinese graduate of
Yale College received an invitation for a meeting with <a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2020/12/who-was-zeng-guofan.html">Zeng Guofan</a>, a venerable
Qing official and commander of the Hunan Army fighting the Taiping rebellion in
the Yangtze Valley. Yung Wing just went from a tea district under the control
of the Taiping and feared an interrogation or a reprimand, but the meeting
turned out to be for an assignment to purchase machines for the future Jiangnan
Arsenal – part of the Self-Strengthening Movement that Zeng supported.</i><span><a name='more'></a></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">During this meeting, Yung Wing described the imposing character of
the Marquis of Yiyong. He wrote:</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><blockquote><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Zeng Guofan, as he appeared in 1863, was over 60 years of age, in the
very prime of life. He was five feet, eight or nine inches tall, strongly build
and well-knitted together and in fine proportion. He had a broad chest and
square shoulders surmounted by a large symmetrical head. He had a broad and
high forehead; his eyes were set on a straight line under triangular-shaped
eyelids, free from that obliquity so characteristic of the Mongolian type of
countenance usually accompanied by high cheekbones, which is another feature
peculiar to the Chinese physiognomy. His face was straight and somewhat hairy.
He allowed his side-whiskers their full growth; they hung down with his full
beard which swept across a broad chest and added dignity to a commanding
appearance. His eyes though not large were keen and penetrating. They were of a
clear hazel color. His mouth was large but well compressed with thin lips which
showed a strong will and a high purpose. Such was Zeng Guofan’s external
appearance when I first met his at Nanking.</span><span style="text-align: left;"> </span></div></blockquote><blockquote><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;">Regarding his character, he was undoubtedly one of the most remarkable
men of his age and time. As a military general, he might be called a self-made
man; by dint of his indomitable persistence and perseverance, he rose from his
high scholarship as a Hanlin to be a generalissimo of all the imperial forces
that were levied against the Taiping rebels, and in less than a decade after he
headed his Hunan raw recruits, he succeeded in reducing the wide devastation of
the rebellion that covered a territorial area of three of the richest provinces
of China to the single one of Jiangnan, till finally, by the construction of
his forces, he succeeded in crushing the life out of the rebellion by the fall
and capture of Nanking. The Taiping Rebellion was of 15 years’ duration, from
1850 to 1865. It was no small task to bring it to its extinction. Its rise and
progress had cost the Empire untold treasures, while 25,000,000 human lives
were immolated in that political hecatomb. The close of the great rebellion
gave the people a breathing respite. The Dowager Empress had special reasons to
be grateful to the genius of Zeng Guofan, who was instrumental in restoring
peace and order to the Manchu Dynasty. She was not slow, however, to recognize
Zeng Guofan’s merits and moral worth and created him a duke. But Zeng’s
greatness was not to be measured by any degree of conventional nobility; it did
not consist in his victories over the rebels, much less in his recapture of
Nanking. It rose from his great virtues: his pure, unselfish patriotism, his
deep and far-sighted statesmanship, and the purity of his official career. He
is known in history as “the man of rectitude.” This was his posthumous title
conferred on him by the imperial decree.</span></span></div></blockquote><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b>Bibliography:</b></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: left;"><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Yung Wing. <i>My Life in China and America</i>. New York, New York: Henry Holt
& Co., 1909.</span></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p>Bob Corcuerahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14748111488274035197noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3147004568822447450.post-45505669331417152802020-10-31T14:55:00.001+08:002020-12-08T19:23:24.719+08:00Self-Strengthening Movement and Qing Industrialization - Part 2<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiGHsaZH-wInwkl-u2jq2IxAvG3feY5ykwhiiw2riLpSUVURFEpBsSPLw8dbFWP3V-1b5iJBbZpd7vopWGoLEpPKmB5v_5ep0IUXTNmIszjhgMLtkOCBB6HWk4vCVaRAzYAMVXdiWrh0Cw/s690/Fuzhou+Arsenal.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="474" data-original-width="690" height="440" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiGHsaZH-wInwkl-u2jq2IxAvG3feY5ykwhiiw2riLpSUVURFEpBsSPLw8dbFWP3V-1b5iJBbZpd7vopWGoLEpPKmB5v_5ep0IUXTNmIszjhgMLtkOCBB6HWk4vCVaRAzYAMVXdiWrh0Cw/w640-h440/Fuzhou+Arsenal.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><br /><i>Heraclitus said “There is nothing permanent except change” and it applies to life at the smallest and to society at the largest. When faced with challenges and difficulties, a change in ways seemed the correct path, but the question that follows: how to change or what to change? This question represented the Self-Strengthening Movement and its quest for the industrialization of China under the Qing Dynasty.</i><span><a name='more'></a></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b><br /></b></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b>Economic Development<br /></b><br /></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Military modernization takes money, the Self-Strengthening Movement
aimed to develop the economy to finance this undertaking. Just as Japan’s
“Enrich the country, strong army” slogan, the movement started projects to
develop modern industries to compete with foreign companies and support the
military rearmament. Its outcome determined the success of the movement.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br />After the rebellions ended, the government began the reconstruction of
the provinces. They sponsored migration to open lands in the war-torn provinces
and provided the necessary tools and seeds. They also rebuild the local
infrastructure such as canals, roads, and irrigations. Finally, they relaxed
land taxation and grain tributes to the ravaged provinces.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br />In the 1870s, Li Hongzang then proposed the strengthening of industries
and transportation under the slogan <i>Fuqiang</i>
– Wealth and Power. He along with other local officials of the
Self-Strengthening Movement undertook numerous massive industrial projects. To
increase the chances of success, they implemented the scheme known as the <i>guandu shangban</i> or official supervision
and merchant management enterprise – an equivalent of a state-owned enterprise.
Under this scheme, officials established the guidelines from which the company
operated while day to day operations fell to the hands of businessmen and
managers. Under this setup, the most expensive and biggest industrial projects
began.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br />The China Merchant’s Steam Navigation Company provided the earliest
example of a Self-Strengthening Movement project and an entity operating as a <i>guandu shangban</i>. Founded in 1872 by Li
Hongzhang, the company aimed to compete with foreign shipping companies in the
Chinese coastal and riverine trade. Li Hongzhang took the post of an official
supervisor while the position of merchant fell to Tang Tingshu (Tong Kingsing).
Tang gained experience in shipping by working for the prominent Hong Kong-based
company Jardine, Matheson, and Company. The company gained a monopoly for
shipping grain from the Yangtze to Tianjin. In 1876, the company expanded its
fleet by purchasing ships from the American Shanghai Steam Navigation Company
becoming one of the largest shipping companies in China. In the same year,
Sheng Xuanhuai, the prominent Qing industrialist, took the post of manager from
Tang. The company, however, began to decline in the 1880s due to corruption,
red tape, and massive losses – problems not isolated to the company as later
seen.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi_KTl2DB9v0Jc5M_3fwK3DW8keE_bHUJoLGwdS5ECe5fMxDarPmlXAdxucniNb3OV-8Jx6irK3yJo-QkjkOZUrpI8g2iB8rb2BD67D5JcOdGDQl2OrDd_8_4uZCtZfL-0Xov0jVkWtriw/s599/412px-Li_Hung_Chang_in_1896.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="599" data-original-width="412" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi_KTl2DB9v0Jc5M_3fwK3DW8keE_bHUJoLGwdS5ECe5fMxDarPmlXAdxucniNb3OV-8Jx6irK3yJo-QkjkOZUrpI8g2iB8rb2BD67D5JcOdGDQl2OrDd_8_4uZCtZfL-0Xov0jVkWtriw/w275-h400/412px-Li_Hung_Chang_in_1896.jpg" width="275" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Li Hongzhang</span><br /></td></tr></tbody></table><br /><br />Following the shipping company, in 1878, Li Hongzhang founded the
Kaiping Coal Mines in Tangshan, 60 miles northeast of Tianjin. Tang Tishu who
managed the China Merchants’ Steam Navigation Company transferred to manage the
Kaiping Coal Mines. The company hired British experts to assist in the project
and production began in 1881. It tremendously contributed to decreasing China’s
massive coal imports, nevertheless faced numerous obstacles. First, public
opinion ran against the project as many regarded it as a disturbance in the
region’s feng shui. Furthermore, it cost a lot to transport the coal from the
mines to Tianjin and plans to alleviate this problem with a railway also faced
overwhelming local opposition who argued the potential loss of employment of
coolies. A tramway instead built in its place with a locomotive built
domestically and dubbed as “China’s Rocket.” The company continued to operate
well into the 1890s when the corruption, bureaucracy, mismanagement, and
terrible political climate (Boxer War) ruined the company finally falling into
British control.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br />Other industrial projects also commenced in various provinces. In 1877,
Zuo Zongtang established a woolen mill in Lanzhou using steam power. In 1880, Sheng
Xuanhuai contributed to the establishment of the Imperial Chinese Telegraph
Administration improving the connection between localities. In 1887, Li Hongzhang
once again established another enterprise, the Shanghai Cotton Cloth Mill which
by 1892 produced 4 million yards of cloth, but it all went up in smoke when a
fire destroyed the facility. On the other hand, in the early 1890s, Zhang
Zhidong supervised the construction of a railroad line connecting Hankow and
Beijing. For this, he established the Hanyang Iron Works and the Daye Iron
Mines to produce the necessary rails for the project. However, mismanagement
and lack of technical knowledge resulted in dismal and expensive rails and the
company went into massive losses.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br />China witnessed a rise in industries with the Self-Strengthening
Movement in full swing. An exciting period that saw the rise of factories and the potential for economic development. However, it ended with mixed results.
Nevertheless, the movement went forward and modernization of the military went
underway.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /><b>Military Modernization<br /></b><br /></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Military modernization laid at the core of the Self-Strengthening
Movement. With a strong military, China aimed to resist any forthcoming foreign
aggression and prevent another unequal treaty humiliating for the Empire. Thus,
as officials busied in establishing factories they simultaneously built
military-industrial complexes.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br />The Taiping Rebellion along with the Opium War exposed China’s outdated
military. Officials tasked to destroy the rebellion began to train modern
military units using modern weapons. These same officials wanted to do the same
on a bigger national scale. In 1862, <b><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2020/12/who-was-zeng-guofan.html">Zeng Guofan</a></b>, a celebrated veteran of the
Taiping Rebellion, established the Anqing Arsenal to produce ammunition and
small firearms.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiB2HoTPOtxeCcpdxUm841kVhZJ3Tl7N3v8KrVvc3SegJ1LmUJ-b4RNutNHMtmD5l0u6hxy83a1FPGUbGr7gSeqXXA83zJs2Q0hyHPBdGHvPH2rPLeQQPQba1xCCfXLQfAWN6i1l4y9T9k/s1280/Gun+transportation+at+Kiangnan+Arsenal+in+Shanghai.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="943" data-original-width="1280" height="295" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiB2HoTPOtxeCcpdxUm841kVhZJ3Tl7N3v8KrVvc3SegJ1LmUJ-b4RNutNHMtmD5l0u6hxy83a1FPGUbGr7gSeqXXA83zJs2Q0hyHPBdGHvPH2rPLeQQPQba1xCCfXLQfAWN6i1l4y9T9k/w400-h295/Gun+transportation+at+Kiangnan+Arsenal+in+Shanghai.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: xx-small;">Gun transportation at Kiangnan Arsenal in Shanghai</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br />A bigger Jiangnan Arsenal in Shanghai began operation in 1865
established by Zeng Guofan and his protégé Li Hongzhang. The facility became
China’s and even one of the world’s largest arms factory equipped with machines
obtained from the US with the assistance of Yung Wing and hired the British
Halliday Macartney a technical adviser. Besides weapons manufacturing, it also
hosted a translation office headed by John Fryer from Tongwen Guan of Beijing.
The arsenal employed 3,000 Chinese at its peak and paid better salaries than
coolies to produce initially small arms and ammunitions. Later on, it expanded
to shipbuilding and in 1868 produced the steamship SS Tianqi, meaning the
Auspicious. By the 1870s, it obtained the license to produce Remington rifles, but
its quality paled in comparison with its western counterpart.</span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br />Naval modernization also began in the earnest. In 1861, China, with the assistance of Robert Hart of the Imperial Maritime Customs, advised Prince Gong
of the Zongli Yamen to purchase steamships from Britain. However, a condition
that the ships to remain under British control resulted in the purchase’s last-minute cancellation. Then in 1866, Zuo Zongtang sent a proposal to Beijing to
establish a shipyard, he wrote:<br /><blockquote>“Your minister humbly believes that if we desire to prevent harm from
the sea and, at the same time, to receive its advantages, we must reorganize
our navy; if we wish to reorganize our navy, we must establish a plant, to
supervise and build steamships. The Europeans are skillful but we Chinese do
not have to be content with our stupidity… It is not impossible to get the
machines.”</blockquote>The Fuzhou (Foochow) Shipyard and Arsenal thus began. It possessed both
dockyard and naval schools. They hired French technicians to assist in
shipbuilding and by 1875, the facility launched its 15</span><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;">th ship. The
ships from the shipyard, however, cost way much, and its capabilities and
technology obsolete.</span></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1hSZFdvPdvEFVq6fZCvvoBqaSB-u_V9y72ywRMr8VtAAeFsp6o-DOvNkloUQx7UmHae_ql4a80I4sdCbcrqO-kB5OwMpV_hopL2ohPvuM9IPt_Inaberazw92h2gmGXDN1AFKV5_8-nA/s1170/Zuo+Zongtang.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1170" data-original-width="800" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1hSZFdvPdvEFVq6fZCvvoBqaSB-u_V9y72ywRMr8VtAAeFsp6o-DOvNkloUQx7UmHae_ql4a80I4sdCbcrqO-kB5OwMpV_hopL2ohPvuM9IPt_Inaberazw92h2gmGXDN1AFKV5_8-nA/w274-h400/Zuo+Zongtang.jpg" width="274" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Zuo Zongtang</span></td></tr></tbody></table></span><span style="font-size: large;"><br />The efforts of the Self-Strengthening Movement saw advances in the Chinese
military. However, its pace and quality failed to match that of Japan as seen
in the Sino-Japanese War that raged between 1894 and 1895. Chinese navy and the army suffered defeat from the superior firepower of the Japanese Imperial Army
and Navy.</span></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><b><span style="font-size: large;">Judgment</span><br /></b><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;">The Self-Strengthening Movement aimed at revitalizing an ill dynasty
facing tremendous threats. It saw developments in education, industry, and
military. However, in the end, it only delayed the inevitable collapse of the
Qing Dynasty and the Imperial system as a whole in 1911.</span></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><span style="font-size: large;">The Sino-Japanese War exposed yet again China’s weakness and that of
the Self-Strengthening Movement. The Movement continued and succeeded by the
Hundred Days’ Reform of 1898. However, the triumph of conservative officials at
the end of the Hundred Days’ marked a pause in China’s modernization. Only
after the end of the Boxer War did China once again saw reforms, but the
conditions already too late to salvage the dynasty. The Xinhai Revolution of
1910 and 1911 put an end to the dying Qing Dynasty and saw the birth of the Chinese
Republic.</span></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><span style="font-size: large;">Cultural difference contributed to the failure of the
Self-Strengthening Movement. Though most of the officials found a common ground
between the traditional Confucian beliefs and modern knowledge, the majority of the
court remained extremely conservative and more so the population. The
disruption of feng shui became a common argument against modernization
projects, such as the case of the Kaiping Mine. Xenophobia remained high with
many frowning upon modern and foreign technology such as the case of railroads.</span></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><span style="font-size: large;">Moreover, the lack of proper technical and modern managerial skills
contributed further to the lackluster results of the Movement’s efforts.
Despite the translations schools, translated western works remained limited and
few. Even the major proponents of the movements like Zeng Guofan admitted their
lack of understanding mathematics with his memorial in 1868:</span><br /><span style="font-size: large;"><blockquote>“In addition, a school should be established in which to learn
translation, because translation is the foundation for manufactures. Foreign
manufacturing is derived from mathematics, all the profound mysteries of which
can be discovered through diagrams and explanations. It is simply because the
languages are mutually incomprehensible that, even though every day we practice
on their machines, after all, we do not understand the principles underlying
their manufacture and operation.”</blockquote></span><span style="font-size: large;">Furthermore, the Empire failed to provide the political, social, and
cultural climate needed for modernization. This lack of fundamental reforms
contributed to the movement’s failure.</span></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><span style="font-size: large;">Absence of fundamental reform coupled with corruption, bureaucratic red
tape and incompetence led to numerous wasteful industrial projects. Such the
case of the Anqing Arsenal, the Hanyang Iron Works, and Daye Iron Mine which
merged in 1908 as the HanYeping Iron and Coal Company which still faced
difficulties and finally defunct in 1913.</span></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><span style="font-size: large;">Finally the lack of genuine support from the regency, in particular, the
Empress Dowager Cixi, built an unsecured foundation for the reform. Beijing
remained on the sidelines of the modernization efforts and heavily relied on
local leaders to lead the charge. This lack of coordination and organization
contributed to the scattered projects across the country.</span></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><span style="font-size: large; line-height: 107%;">John K. Fairbank made a fitting assessment of
the movement: “Its leaders were conscientiously reviving the past instead of
facing China’s new future creatively.” Indeed, the leadership of the Qing
failed to embraced modernity, thus it faced its inevitable demise.</span></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large; line-height: 107%;"><div style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">See also: </span></b></div><div><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2020/11/self-strengthening-movement-and-qing.html">Self-Strengthening Movement and Qing Industrialization - Part 1</a></div><div style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2020/08/who-was-empress-dowager-cixi-part-1.html">Empress Dowager Cixi</a> </span></div><div><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2020/12/who-was-zeng-guofan.html">Zeng Guofan</a></div><div style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2020/10/the-8-things-to-know-about-zhang-zhidong.html">Zhang Zhidong</a> </span></div><div style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></b></div><div style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Bibliography:</span></b></div><div style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Books: </span></b></div><div style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Fairbank, John King. China: A New History. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2006.</span></div><div style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Robert, J.A.G. A History of China. New York, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.</span></div><div style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Teng, Ssu-yu & John King Fairbank. China's response to the West: A Documentary Survey, 1839 - 1923. Forge Village, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1954.</span></div><div style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Wright, David Curtis. The History of China. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO,LLC, 2011.</span></div><div style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></b></div><div style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Websites: </span></b></div><div style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><span>Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. "Anqing." Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed on October 11, 2020. URL: </span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Anqing">https://www.britannica.com/place/Anqing</a> </span></div><div style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><span>_____________________________. "Jiangnan Arsenal." Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed on October 11, 2020. URL: </span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Jiangnan-Arsenal">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Jiangnan-Arsenal</a></span></div></span></span></div>
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</div>Bob Corcuerahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14748111488274035197noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3147004568822447450.post-46897898765855316552020-10-31T12:39:00.001+08:002020-12-08T19:27:57.175+08:00Self-Strengthening Movement and Qing Industrialization - Part 1<div style="text-align: justify;"><p style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"></p><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><span><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhhzATy68EfcPPp_crLLTxAbT2IFJ9XJuVBPggZF1j1y88TzSyhq1aFoEcq_GXKv82unAWHlAyXCI2BsZwp_jRpyp_aPrwZsplrIjxa83-frbSiifutHH6ywYZsV2L8-a0v5dbLoheqZT4/s1024/Nanjing+Jinling+Arsenal%252C+1865.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="842" data-original-width="1024" height="526" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhhzATy68EfcPPp_crLLTxAbT2IFJ9XJuVBPggZF1j1y88TzSyhq1aFoEcq_GXKv82unAWHlAyXCI2BsZwp_jRpyp_aPrwZsplrIjxa83-frbSiifutHH6ywYZsV2L8-a0v5dbLoheqZT4/w640-h526/Nanjing+Jinling+Arsenal%252C+1865.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><br /><i>Heraclitus said “There is nothing permanent except change” and it applies to life at the smallest and to society at the largest. When faced with challenges and difficulties, a change in ways seemed the correct path, but the question that follows: how to change or what to change? This question represented the Self-Strengthening Movement and its quest for the industrialization of China under the Qing Dynasty.</i><span><a name='more'></a></span><br /><br /></span></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b>An Empire in Decline<br /></b></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">The arrival of the 19th century also meant a trial for the Qing Dynasty. Discontent among foreign merchants grew which resulted in an unholy trade that ruined Chinese society, health, and economy. Reaction to this diabolic trade led instead to a war that deteriorated the situation further resulting in a period known as the Century of Humiliation.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">A combination of external and internal pressure brought about the decline of the Qing Dynasty. Issues in trade, in particular, dissatisfaction over the setup of the Canton trade system and the trade balance between China and Great Britain, culminating in the rise of the opium trade. British-led Opium export to China wreaked havoc in Chinese society prompting a crackdown by Beijing led by Commissioner Lin Zexu. The curbing of the trade, however, resulted in the Opium wars that ended with unequal treaties that humiliated the country. This humiliation exposed China’s backwardness and the Qing Dynasty’s weakness.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">The 1850s further descended the Qing court into turmoil with news of several rebellions in central China. Corruption seeped into the local administration that prevented the delivery of satisfactory service to the Chinese people. Furthermore, a rise in population caused the growing competition for employment and land as well as overstretching of government oversight that brought further discontent. This discontent exploded in great violence with the Taiping Rebellion being the largest and longest of all the rebellions from 1850 to 1864. The rebellions intensified and the burden in the treasury disrupted the economy and demoralized the military to the point that the days of the Qing seemed numbered.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEghLTNrp0X1irBMYA7susvqIOGLgk6dMhTf8tjVCeMMyMsyGRwogoVhggHSauSTtG40kSWGwFm8t4paV7eRAOYrQX3rf_WnoB-pyPv3jrVMC_kkGmxZiKwkhJFBGCI7COLhc-3pHRRdh2w/s1280/Lin+Zexu+and+Destruction+of+Opium.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="784" data-original-width="1280" height="392" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEghLTNrp0X1irBMYA7susvqIOGLgk6dMhTf8tjVCeMMyMsyGRwogoVhggHSauSTtG40kSWGwFm8t4paV7eRAOYrQX3rf_WnoB-pyPv3jrVMC_kkGmxZiKwkhJFBGCI7COLhc-3pHRRdh2w/w640-h392/Lin+Zexu+and+Destruction+of+Opium.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Lin Zexu and Destruction of Opium</span></td></tr></tbody></table></span></div><div><b style="font-family: arial; font-size: x-large;"><br /></b></div><div><b style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;">Stable Foundation</span></b></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">The Tongzhi Restoration that began in 1861 provided a fresh and stable political climate fit for reform. From a change in political leadership, internal security improved and new officials rose up the ranks. These officials along with realization among the scholars went to the forefront of the Self-Strengthening Movement.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">In hindsight, the Tongzhi Restoration seemed to be an eye in the middle of a storm. A period of tranquility and peace in contrast to the 1850s that saw the Opium Wars and several rebellions tremendously weakened China. It witnessed a revitalization amidst a decline that several dynasties before also experience.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">The Restoration started in 1861 with the death of the Xianfeng Emperor leaving behind the child Tongzhi Emperor to sit in the dragon throne. The Empire’s state affairs fell to an 8-member regency council to rule in the young sovereign’s stead until he reaches the majority. However, in the event that came to be known as the Xinyou Coup, the Emperor’s biological mother, the later <a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2020/08/who-was-empress-dowager-cixi-part-1.html"><b>Empress Dowager Cixi</b></a>, his stepmother Empress Chen, alongside several high-ranking officials and royal family members overthrew the regency council and took power. The Empress Dowagers along with Prince Gong determined to reverse China’s fortune with modernization.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><span>They then worked to reorganize both external and internal affairs. For foreign affairs, they set up the Zongli Yamen or the Office of the General Affairs headed by Prince Gong and tasked with the handling of relations with the foreign powers. For domestic affairs and security, the regents crushed the numerous uprisings that ruined the central plains of China. The most bloody and extensive rebellion, the Taiping Rebellion, saw its end in 1864. The Qing armies also fought several more successful pacification campaigns against other rebellions in the 1870s. In the end, the conflict caused the death of 20 to 30 million which ironically relieved the overpopulation that contributed to the socioeconomic causes of the uprisings. The rebellions also resulted in the greater autonomy of local gentries for security as seen with the establishment of </span><i>tuanlian</i><span> or village defense militias funded by the new </span><i>linjin</i><span> tax.</span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><span><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgcYPdRbSTQY9owJT7lrkcsPQPlsvHNHmShmnNbIoRt09Gf_xwkK5WoowVaUa8iD8-FY7WRtN6-XeoV1Q99Z8O7CfKpquGNw8kwHF4ySi_ImDixERDrU0IDT1OgsMB_ugwtDoR2Dy4-JZc/s791/Empress+Dowager+Cixi.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="791" data-original-width="582" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgcYPdRbSTQY9owJT7lrkcsPQPlsvHNHmShmnNbIoRt09Gf_xwkK5WoowVaUa8iD8-FY7WRtN6-XeoV1Q99Z8O7CfKpquGNw8kwHF4ySi_ImDixERDrU0IDT1OgsMB_ugwtDoR2Dy4-JZc/w295-h400/Empress+Dowager+Cixi.jpg" width="295" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Empress Dowager Cixi</span><br /></td></tr></tbody></table></span></span></div><div><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></b></div><div><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">A Realization</span></b></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">With the improvement in national politics and security, the scent of change smelled in the air, and scholars and officials took the opportunity. Officials and intellectuals wanted to reverse China’s fortunes. They realized the need to adopt modern western technology but aligned this learning to the Confucian values and traditions of the Empire. Defense of the country meant maintaining Qing’s mandate to rule, but so as protection of Confucian values.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Among officials, men who fought to crush the rebellion rose up in the ranks and supported the need for the adoption of the latest science and technology for the Empire’s survival. They understood the need and effectiveness of a modern military for both internal and external security. Men such as <a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2020/12/who-was-zeng-guofan.html"><b>Zeng Guofan</b></a> and Li Honzhang who fought the Taiping as well as <b><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2020/10/the-8-things-to-know-about-zhang-zhidong.html">Zhang Zhidong</a></b> and Zuo Zongtang called for the radical modernization of the education system, industries, and most importantly the military. Alongside officials, scholars and intellectuals also joined the call for reforms. Scholars possessed tremendous respect and served as the epitome of wisdom greatly valued in Confucianism. Either they served as officials themselves or become trusted advisors such as Wei Yuan, an adviser to Lin Zexu who led the crackdown against opium sparking the First Opium War, promoted the concept of “using barbarians to control barbarians.” He stated:</span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><blockquote>“There are two methods of attacking the barbarians, namely, to stimulate countries unfriendly to the barbarians to make an attack on them, and to learn the superior skills of the barbarians in order to control them.”</blockquote></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Feng Guifen, an adviser to Li Honzhang, wrote an essay in 1860 calling for “self-strengthening” after analyzing the superiority of the western countries and concluding:</span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><blockquote>“In my opinion, if we cannot make ourselves strong (Ziqiang) but merely presume on cunning and deceit, it will be just enough to incur failure. Only one sentence of Wei Yuan is correct: ‘Learn the strong techniques of the barbarians in order to control them...” </blockquote></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Feng called for the establishment of translation schools and institutions to allow faster adoption and understanding of western sciences, technology, and know-how.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><span>The collaboration between officials and scholars gave birth to the Self-Strengthening Movement or </span><i>Ziqiang</i><span> Movement. They believed in the adoption of practical western technology and ways but maintaining ancient Chinese traditions alive. An idea encapsulated in the slogan “Chinese Learning as the Base, Western Studies for Use.” It served as the battle cry similar to Japan’s Fukoku Kyohei “Rich Country, Strong Army.”</span></span></div><div><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></b></div><div><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">See also: </span></b></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2020/11/self-strengthening-movement-and-qing-part-2.html">Self-Strengthening Movement and Qing Industrialization - Part 2</a></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2020/08/who-was-empress-dowager-cixi-part-1.html">Empress Dowager Cixi</a> </span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2020/10/the-8-things-to-know-about-zhang-zhidong.html">Zhang Zhidong</a> </span></div><div><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></b></div><div><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Bibliography:</span></b></div><div><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Books: </span></b></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Fairbank, John King. China: A New History. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2006.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Robert, J.A.G. A History of China. New York, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Teng, Ssu-yu & John King Fairbank. China's response to the West: A Documentary Survey, 1839 - 1923. Forge Village, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1954.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Wright, David Curtis. The History of China. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO,LLC, 2011.</span></div><div><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></b></div><div><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Websites: </span></b></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><span>Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. "Anqing." Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed on October 11, 2020. URL: </span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Anqing">https://www.britannica.com/place/Anqing</a> </span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><span>_____________________________. "Jiangnan Arsenal." Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed on October 11, 2020. URL: </span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Jiangnan-Arsenal">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Jiangnan-Arsenal</a></span></div><div style="height: 0px;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><p></p></div></div></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p></div></span></div><div style="height: 0px;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b><br /></b></span></div><div style="height: 0px;"><br style="text-align: left;" /></div></div>Bob Corcuerahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14748111488274035197noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3147004568822447450.post-21206893401309341132020-10-17T15:41:00.003+08:002020-12-08T19:28:38.909+08:00The 8 Things to Know About Zhang Zhidong<p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi3f4HbXx1bnG1M_0iUEvmcUbzei5aORtXtFF0Xt6qKB5heaugQ6BR6RRCkMnSIokS1ryBWrQFgfk1bPdQTj9bUmC_D26LJR9iALD9bcT1bVZ-AkMhZlsi32DYepsYdBfziyl5HoIhVkmk/s857/Zhang+Zhidong.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="857" data-original-width="600" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi3f4HbXx1bnG1M_0iUEvmcUbzei5aORtXtFF0Xt6qKB5heaugQ6BR6RRCkMnSIokS1ryBWrQFgfk1bPdQTj9bUmC_D26LJR9iALD9bcT1bVZ-AkMhZlsi32DYepsYdBfziyl5HoIhVkmk/s320/Zhang+Zhidong.jpg" /></a></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><i style="text-align: justify;">The Tongzhi Restoration ushered a period of stability and </i><i style="text-align: justify;">progress in the middle of the so-called Century of Humiliation. In this period, local officials went into the forefront of development and modernization supporting industries, education, and the military. Among these local leaders included the prominent Li Hongzhang and Zeng Guofan as well as the lesser-known but nevertheless influential Zhang Zhidong.</i></span></div><p></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><a name='more'></a></span></div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><div><b>1. An Exceptional Youth</b></div><div><br /></div><div>Born on September 2, 1837, Zhang Zhidong belonged to a family of scholarly officials. His heritage laid out his path towards becoming also a scholar and official, hence he devoted his youth to prepare for the Civil Service Exams. He delved into the classics until he passed the 1st level of the exams at the age of 13. He went on until finally attaining the highest degree of <i>jinshi</i> at the age of 26. His successful bid landed him into his first official posting.</div><div><br /></div><o:p style="text-align: left;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><b>2. An Educator and Intellectual</b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><br /></b></div></o:p><div><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjVjeJHB4pVUGX8ktF0zN5_ypVoeli38mn05hQrOod3haV5ctaxRlv0wjJ0ReUS8g2qI6Xy5wWMp8lcp-YaIEPM3clAvsYVBxi0vB8Yk4KzR5FoXUqy2KEjMrX8n-J_EbIyZAYvBzGFGIE/s646/Hanlin+Academy.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="299" data-original-width="646" height="296" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjVjeJHB4pVUGX8ktF0zN5_ypVoeli38mn05hQrOod3haV5ctaxRlv0wjJ0ReUS8g2qI6Xy5wWMp8lcp-YaIEPM3clAvsYVBxi0vB8Yk4KzR5FoXUqy2KEjMrX8n-J_EbIyZAYvBzGFGIE/w640-h296/Hanlin+Academy.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Hanlin Academy</span><br /></td></tr></tbody></table><br />After obtaining his <i>jinshi</i> degree, Zhang worked in the respected Hanlin Academy becoming a proctor of civil service examinations at local levels. From 1873 to 1877. He served as Szechwan’s education director during which he founded an academy in Chengdu, a printing office that published various classic for the public to read, and in 1878 published a handbook for students to guide them in their careers.</div><div><br /></div><o:p style="text-align: left;"><div style="text-align: justify;">In 1881, Zhang served as editor-in-chief of a gazette in Beijing before receiving his appointment as Governor of the Shanxi Province from 1881 to 1884. As Governor, he worked to rehabilitate the province’s obsolete and dilapidated education system.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></o:p><div>His role as a respected intellectual and a strong advocate of education became ever more evident in 1898 right after China’s humiliating defeat in the Sino-Japanese War. He sent a memorial to the Guangxu Emperor which later called <i>Quanxuepian</i> or Exhortation to Learning (Later published in English in 1901 as China's Only Hope)which embodied the phrase <i>“Chinese Learning as Substance, Western Learning for Application”</i> that guided the <b><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2020/11/self-strengthening-movement-and-qing.html">Self-Strengthening Movement</a></b>. He valued western technology, but remained faithful to Chinese traditions stating:</div><div><blockquote>“If the Chinese student is not versed in Chinese literature, he is like a man who does not know his own name. Attempts to govern without a knowledge of Chinese, will be like trying to ride a horse without a bridle, or steer a boat without a rudder. Without a basis of native literature the Chinese who acquires this Western learning, will loathe his country in proportion as his scientific knowledge increases and although his knowledge may be perfected to a high degree, how can our country employ him if he does not know Chinese?”</blockquote></div><div>His suggestions and ideals delighted the Emperor and became an inspiration during the height of the botched Hundred Days’ Reform.</div><div><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiU2mjZrSgR_OghLJljOtyrFhp0W9xKB8AHLpMxtiMz0XMR0nhl5JzGG8nJB5JL3uaRjlIzWT0SEEdvjIy2iGTnNjToSyqZ-n4A3VYvcuv1iOl1U_-6SO7JC5_v9s7qddJn8fQ_9d5WOzw/s474/Emperor+Guangxu.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="474" data-original-width="348" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiU2mjZrSgR_OghLJljOtyrFhp0W9xKB8AHLpMxtiMz0XMR0nhl5JzGG8nJB5JL3uaRjlIzWT0SEEdvjIy2iGTnNjToSyqZ-n4A3VYvcuv1iOl1U_-6SO7JC5_v9s7qddJn8fQ_9d5WOzw/s320/Emperor+Guangxu.jpg" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Guangxu Emperor</span><br /></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></div><div>Into the 20th century, he continued to play a key role in improving China’s education system. In 1904, he drafted massive 8-volume long rules and regulations for a national education system touching from basic rationale, administration, and the establishment of supplementary institutions such as research centers and vocational schools. In 1905, he witnessed the realization of his long-time advocacy when the Court abolished the obsolete civil service exams. Then in 1908, he supported the sending of 475 students to Japan and another 103 to western countries.</div><div><br /></div><div><b>3.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Seasoned Government Officials</b></div><div><br /></div><div>Besides an educator, Zhang also held various local administrative positions. In his various postings, he worked to develop his jurisdiction making a name for himself as a progressive official in the likes of <a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2020/12/who-was-zeng-guofan.html"><b>Zeng Guofan</b></a>, Li Hongzhang, and <b><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2020/07/who-was-yuan-shikai-part-1.html">Yuan Shikai</a></b>. By the early years of the new century, the Court greatly recognized his talents and honored him with further promotions.</div><div><br /></div><o:p style="text-align: left;"><div style="text-align: justify;">After his stint in Szechwan, Zhang propelled himself in favor of the court. The Treaty of Livadia surrendered to Russia lands pacified and controlled by the Qing in the modern Xinjiang Province. Zhang wrote a memorial condemning this unequal treaty that gained him the attention and the favor of the powerful Empress Dowager Cixi. For his well-received condemnation, he gained a major position as Governor of Shanxi Province in 1881.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgcYPdRbSTQY9owJT7lrkcsPQPlsvHNHmShmnNbIoRt09Gf_xwkK5WoowVaUa8iD8-FY7WRtN6-XeoV1Q99Z8O7CfKpquGNw8kwHF4ySi_ImDixERDrU0IDT1OgsMB_ugwtDoR2Dy4-JZc/s791/Empress+Dowager+Cixi.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="791" data-original-width="582" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgcYPdRbSTQY9owJT7lrkcsPQPlsvHNHmShmnNbIoRt09Gf_xwkK5WoowVaUa8iD8-FY7WRtN6-XeoV1Q99Z8O7CfKpquGNw8kwHF4ySi_ImDixERDrU0IDT1OgsMB_ugwtDoR2Dy4-JZc/w295-h400/Empress+Dowager+Cixi.jpg" width="295" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Empress Dowager Cixi</span><br /></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></div></o:p><div>From 1884 to 1889, he served as Governor-General of Guangdong and Guangxi or as the Viceroy of Liangguang. As Viceroy, he oversaw the conflict with the French over Annam in modern-day Vietnam. Against the overwhelming firepower of the French, the conflict ended with China’s loss. Despite the defeat, Zhang remained on good terms with the Empress. In 1889, his support for a railroad line between Hankow and Beijing earned him the appointment of Governor-General of Hubei and Hunan or Viceroy of Huguang.</div><div><br /></div><div>In 1900, during the height of the Boxer Rebellion, Zhang joined forces with the Governor-General of Guangdong and Guangxi (Viceroy of Liangguang) Li Hongzhang and the Governor of Shandong Yuan Shikai to form the Mutual Protection of Southeast China that opposed the Boxers and refused to declare war against the foreign powers. Their regions and military emerged unscathed from the catastrophic wrath of the major imperial powers. Moreover, politically, the Empress Dowager Cixi continued to trust them, thus securing Zhang a major role in the reforms in the first decade of the 20th century.</div><div><br /></div><div>In 1907, after serving as Governor-General he received the prestigious appointment of Grand Secretary and Grand Counselor. Furthermore, he became a chief negotiator for the government to obtain the necessary funding for the construction of a railroad network.</div><div><br /></div><div><b>4.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Classic Confucian Official</b></div><div><b><br /></b></div><div><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiEkEppEEnLH6XlccOvLoj_YaF7VMmgoYtJ4SJKh6bYr-he9u1jc71wohkg_ks4MY4PYNO5XCbEG-m8SGnvkwcFgsjfp5qNz_svLIkCOudPvDxrjT5txDudeW3uH-FB8vIlX9UmS9lgzh4/s371/Zhang+Zhidong+%2528in+China%2527s+Only+Hope%2529.jpg.png" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="371" data-original-width="252" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiEkEppEEnLH6XlccOvLoj_YaF7VMmgoYtJ4SJKh6bYr-he9u1jc71wohkg_ks4MY4PYNO5XCbEG-m8SGnvkwcFgsjfp5qNz_svLIkCOudPvDxrjT5txDudeW3uH-FB8vIlX9UmS9lgzh4/w271-h400/Zhang+Zhidong+%2528in+China%2527s+Only+Hope%2529.jpg.png" width="271" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Zhang Zhidong</span><br /></td></tr></tbody></table><br />Zhang, a progressive that extolled the importance of traditional Chinese Confucian values practiced what he preached. He lived as a classic Confucian official dedicated to the improvement of his constituent’s welfare. In his positions as Governor and Governor-General, he curbed corruption, promoted industries, and provided tax amnesties to the peasantry. Moreover, he supported and expanded the local education system.</div><div><br /></div><o:p style="text-align: left;"><div style="text-align: justify;">On a personal level, he did not build a massive personal fortune, unlike the “Yellow Bismarck” Li Hongzhang. He transmitted much of his salary back to the treasury and lived simply. He even pawned his personal effects if he needed additional funds. He effectively passed away in 1909 a poor man.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi_KTl2DB9v0Jc5M_3fwK3DW8keE_bHUJoLGwdS5ECe5fMxDarPmlXAdxucniNb3OV-8Jx6irK3yJo-QkjkOZUrpI8g2iB8rb2BD67D5JcOdGDQl2OrDd_8_4uZCtZfL-0Xov0jVkWtriw/s599/412px-Li_Hung_Chang_in_1896.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="599" data-original-width="412" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi_KTl2DB9v0Jc5M_3fwK3DW8keE_bHUJoLGwdS5ECe5fMxDarPmlXAdxucniNb3OV-8Jx6irK3yJo-QkjkOZUrpI8g2iB8rb2BD67D5JcOdGDQl2OrDd_8_4uZCtZfL-0Xov0jVkWtriw/s320/412px-Li_Hung_Chang_in_1896.jpg" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Li Hongzhang</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></div></o:p><div>For his dedication, he posthumously received the extremely coveted title of Wenxiang or <i>“the Learned and Accomplished.”</i> </div><div><br /></div><div><b>5.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>An Industrialist</b></div><div><br /></div><div>Not only did Zhang promoted education, but as a pillar of the Self-Strengthening Movement, he also supported industrialization. The movement which coincided with the Tongzhi Restoration of the 1860s and 1870s called for the adoption of western technology to modernize the military. He along with other progressive officials began to establish modern industries.</div><div><br /></div><o:p style="text-align: left;"><div style="text-align: justify;">As Governor-General, he supported various businesses from tanneries, tile manufacturing, silk production, paper making, and cotton as well as wool mills among others. In 1884, he oversaw the laying of telegraph wire between Canton, Shanghai, and Hong Kong which later covered the whole Viceroyalty under his control.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjNcZmZmbFHUzZpWSp8KkbUggbilEwRQLCMK0v5XnrMOfV1VPB5LYQKzNc6daj0aXVxOW0h2uYtHTJqIy2Cwn3X6RMXHJpDdrEyQP3r5OIXnAzG20XS5S0WeYBB28s5jh4uNMX_rmqm0AY/s1080/Drawing+of+the+Canton+Mint%252C+1888.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="480" data-original-width="1080" height="285" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjNcZmZmbFHUzZpWSp8KkbUggbilEwRQLCMK0v5XnrMOfV1VPB5LYQKzNc6daj0aXVxOW0h2uYtHTJqIy2Cwn3X6RMXHJpDdrEyQP3r5OIXnAzG20XS5S0WeYBB28s5jh4uNMX_rmqm0AY/w640-h285/Drawing+of+the+Canton+Mint%252C+1888.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Drawing of the Canton Mint, 1888</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></div></o:p><div>In 1887, as Viceroy of Liangguang, he proposed the establishment of a silver coin mint in Canton to modernize the country’s currency. Beijing approved the plan and the mint he proposed came into fruition in 1889 when the Canton Mint became China’s first modern mint and produced the so-called dragon silver coins for its curled dragon design on the reverse side.</div><div><br /></div><div>As Viceroy of Huguang, his patronage led to the foundation of the future Han-Ye-Ping Iron and Coal Company, which unfortunately suffered as badly as Zhang’s personal finances. In 1894, he established ironworks in Hanyang ordering extremely expensive machinery from England followed by an iron mine in Daye. All of which meant to produce rail tracks for the planned Hankow-Beijing Railroad line. However, due to the lack of research on the quality of iron ore and an adequate supply of coal in the area, the ironworks and mine failed to maximize its potential. Worst, the rail tracks produced by the works cost twice as much as imports from Europe. The lack of know-how, managerial skills, bureaucratic red tape, and corruption led to huge losses by the early 1900s. The Chinese industrialist Sheng Xuanhuai bought the facilities to form the Han-Ye-Ping Iron and Coal Company, but the dire condition of the company ultimately led to bankruptcy and takeover by Japanese creditors in 1913.</div><div><br /></div><div>Despite the failure of some of the industrial projects by Zhang, industrial investments in Hankow and surrounding cities that formed modern-day Wuhan turned it into the so-called “Chicago of China.” Besides, he improved the viceroyalty’s finances from an annual income of 7 million Taels in 1889 to 15 million Taels by 1907.</div><div><br /></div><div><b>6.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Military Modernization Supporter</b></div><div><b><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjSfW9YWNPAFz70AwQWP9EslvHupy0gBG8MgN1Cr-l87bEtQxTBtM6bvMkfLN-UGnxbl7XCQq8KMcP9Guzg3uqDB4ywTpWUk9fSH9md3uj59KIL87LAWE0jrX50BNCj9I6gulbjG5Qsmjs/s648/Hubei+New+Army.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="370" data-original-width="648" height="366" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjSfW9YWNPAFz70AwQWP9EslvHupy0gBG8MgN1Cr-l87bEtQxTBtM6bvMkfLN-UGnxbl7XCQq8KMcP9Guzg3uqDB4ywTpWUk9fSH9md3uj59KIL87LAWE0jrX50BNCj9I6gulbjG5Qsmjs/w640-h366/Hubei+New+Army.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Hubei New Army</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></b></div><div>The Self-Strengthening Movement aimed to develop industries and education to ultimately to build a modern military force. In this line, Zhang also dealt with developing his dominion’s military power. In Guangdong and Guanxi, he founded arsenals that produced artillery shells and small firearms. He also expanded the coastal fleet, while greatly supervising also the education of sailors and officers. In 1886 he founded a Torpedo School and hired a German Naval officer as an instructor. In 1887 he reorganized the School of Solid Learning in Whampoa to become the Naval and Military Officers’ Academy. The School of Solid Learning that began operation in 1881 to teach naval engineering soon began to teach military and naval tactics and strategy under Zhang’s supervision.</div><div><br /></div><o:p style="text-align: left;"><div style="text-align: justify;">In Hubei, he organized a new modern army that later became known as the Hubei New Army. He hired once again German instructors to trains the soldiers following the precedence of other modern military units in China such as those trained by Li Hongzhang and Zeng Guofan. He also established the Hanyang Arsenal, one of China’s largest, producing German model guns for the Hubei Army.<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj3fDKNb6UdfHiSEVnm1Spx_fKAQMome3eRs_ZON9ErIbs8gvtNNd7F6nP_Y_3-1nbeIZWVF6HFiTmaOwFl2v8Ez-cNfXAHh9NX9DRG1YGkHUkJBqnH-89LaREDrASyfH_KROoPre3wWKI/s644/Hanyang+Arsenal.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="426" data-original-width="644" height="424" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj3fDKNb6UdfHiSEVnm1Spx_fKAQMome3eRs_ZON9ErIbs8gvtNNd7F6nP_Y_3-1nbeIZWVF6HFiTmaOwFl2v8Ez-cNfXAHh9NX9DRG1YGkHUkJBqnH-89LaREDrASyfH_KROoPre3wWKI/w640-h424/Hanyang+Arsenal.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Hanyang Arsenal</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></div></o:p><div><b>7.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Railroad Advocate</b></div><div><br /></div><div>Industrialization and modernization in the 19th century included the laying out of a railroad network which Zhang Zhidong realized. In 1888, he earned his transfer as Huguang Viceroy by supporting the railroad line connecting Hankow and Beijing. He founded the notorious works which later became known as the Han-Ye-Ping Iron and Coal Company to provide the necessary supplies for the project. The Sino-Japanese War, however, delayed the project’s completion which the Boxer Rebellion further hampered. The railroad finally saw operation in 1906. From 1905 to 1909, Zhang also became the chief negotiator to obtain loans for more railroad lines. In 1905, he negotiated a loan to finance the Canton-Hankow Line and in 1909, he stood in the midst of an agreement for a massive loan for the line from a consortium involving the Deutsche Bank, British HSBC, and the French Banque Indosuez when he suddenly passed away.</div><div><br /></div><o:p style="text-align: left;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><b>8.<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Sow the Seeds of the Xinhai Revolution</b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhOoatBhjeu9_jwZjbruIYX28N2WFfi5_OgRBLLBspJDtz66QbSXAEmzAsCxH52Vldw1flw1kyeKgWQZfMmPwYAeASC9DGElhJgH33aAd7LBeG0T4olAoMcO1V7pgxWMFchK9K0z7XYW1g/s639/Nanjing+Road+during+the+Xinhai+Revolution.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="400" data-original-width="639" height="402" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhOoatBhjeu9_jwZjbruIYX28N2WFfi5_OgRBLLBspJDtz66QbSXAEmzAsCxH52Vldw1flw1kyeKgWQZfMmPwYAeASC9DGElhJgH33aAd7LBeG0T4olAoMcO1V7pgxWMFchK9K0z7XYW1g/w640-h402/Nanjing+Road+during+the+Xinhai+Revolution.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Nanjing Road during Xinhai Revolution</span><br /></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></b></div></o:p><div>Zhang Zhidong strived to preserve the imperial system with his call for reform and supporting the Self-Strengthening Movement. In 1909, the illustrious statesman passed away. A few years later, in 1911, the Xinhai Revolution broke out from Wuchang in Hubei. Many credited Zhang’s reform in setting Hubei as the center of the revolution. He founded the schools that trained the soldiers of the Hubei New Army that played a key role in sparking the Wuchang Uprising that grew to the Revolution. Hubei hosted many industries and financial institutions that financed the Revolution that brought down the dynasty he served.</div><div><br /></div><o:p style="text-align: left;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><b>Summing Up</b></div></o:p><div><br /></div><div>Despite the dark clouds haunting China, Zhang Zhidong strived and labored to change the fate of the Qing Dynasty and introduce it to the modern age. However, he unintentionally set the stage that finally brought it down. Even from the margins, a lesser figure compared to the Empress Dowager Cixi, Yuan Shikai, Li Hongzhang, Zhang Zhidong served as an example of a progressive striving to balance the old and new and played a major role in the development of the history of modern China.</div><div><br /></div><div><b>See also:</b></div><div><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2020/08/who-was-empress-dowager-cixi-part-1.html">Empress Dowager Cixi</a></div><div><br /></div><div><b>Bibliography:</b></div><div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><b>Books:</b></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">Esherick, Joseph & C.X. George Wei (eds.). <i>China: How the Empire Fell</i>. New York, New York, Routledge, 2014.</div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br />Chen, Zhengping. <i>A Brief History of Finance in China</i>. n.p., n.p.: Paths International Ltd., 2014.</div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br />Cameron, Meribeth. “Chang Chih-tung.” <i>Eminent Chinese of the Ch’ing Period (1644 – 1912)</i>. Edited by Arthur Hummel. Washington DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1943.</div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br />Rhoads, Edward. <i>China’s Republican Revolution: The Case of Kwangtung, 1895 – 1913</i>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1975.</div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br /></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><b>Websites:</b><br />Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. “Daye.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed on October 9, 2020. URL: https://www.britannica.com/place/Daye#ref1000191<br /><br /></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">Yi, Chu Wang. “Zhang Zhidong.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed on October 4, 2020. URL: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Zhang-Zhidong</div></div></div></span>Bob Corcuerahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14748111488274035197noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3147004568822447450.post-72735764307989007862020-09-27T21:34:00.002+08:002020-09-27T21:34:33.715+08:00Accounts: Gustavus Adolphus' Articles of War<div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: left;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjqR7Ek0wQV7zSZPu9hXbxDP16OOMP6ZjHDOxktzZTLxYgVj9WUpsNSNIDnfPJISct1YB7Gb7zbLASCqeKbczWtGW_zt42lpyrt_eWu-4PmNp1HmLTKQpw601H0TRvLn3pz5p7QvtADauA/s500/Gustavus+Adolphus+landing+in+Pomerania%252C+near+Wolgast%252C+1630.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Gustavus Adolphus landing in Pomerania, near Wolgast, 1630" border="0" data-original-height="342" data-original-width="500" height="438" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjqR7Ek0wQV7zSZPu9hXbxDP16OOMP6ZjHDOxktzZTLxYgVj9WUpsNSNIDnfPJISct1YB7Gb7zbLASCqeKbczWtGW_zt42lpyrt_eWu-4PmNp1HmLTKQpw601H0TRvLn3pz5p7QvtADauA/w640-h438/Gustavus+Adolphus+landing+in+Pomerania%252C+near+Wolgast%252C+1630.jpg" title="Gustavus Adolphus landing in Pomerania, near Wolgast, 1630" width="640" /></a></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><i>Gustavus Adolphus made a name for himself as a tough disciplinarian.</i><span><a name='more'></a></span><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;">In June 1630, King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden personally led his
kingdom’s expeditionary force of 16,000 men to fight in the Thirty Years’ War.
They landed in Peenemunde and set up headquarters in Pomerania’s capital
Stettin. Being in a foreign land, Gustavus Adolphus hoped to maintain good
relations with the population by maintaining strict discipline among his
soldiers. He then implemented the Articles of War for his soldiers to follow. It stated:</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><i>The taking of the Name of God in vain by swearing or cursing is
forbidden…</i></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><i><br /></i></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><i>In order to instill the fear of God in the hearts of the soldiers, there
shall be morning and evening worship conducted in the camp of all the soldiers.</i></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><i><br /></i></div></span><i><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">No loose women shall be tolerated in the camp. Married women may
accompany their husbands if they so wish.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Whoever robs or steals cattle or the like in friendly lands, or from
those who bring supplies to the camp, or from the enemy without permission,
shall be punished as for other robbery or theft.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">No soldier may plunder any church or hospital even though the city may
have been taken by storm. No one may use force against ministers, old men,
women, or children.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></span></i><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><i>Should anyone drink himself drunk with ale or wine found in the enemy’s
camp or in any city before the enemy is fully driven out, he may with impunity
be slain by anyone finding him.</i></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b>Reference:</b></div></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Grimberg, Carl. <i>A History of Sweden</i>. Translated by C.W. Foss. Rock
Island, Illinois, Augustana Book Concern, 1935.</div></span></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p>Bob Corcuerahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14748111488274035197noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3147004568822447450.post-2039187857398060162020-09-27T21:02:00.003+08:002020-09-27T21:34:59.663+08:00Who was Gustavus Adolphus? - Part 3<div style="text-align: left;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhamZ4VIMdAGkCfgt7ffuAuF1K-c6fyy7Nvv8flRW-ZLp52pT1L4EbZP7HXxLiYToVeyx3_NBhxfZsynX8vBQIyBDSsT92KA3iWt-p89BR57r_xbzoDFO0Dx24mI8VZwiRTg1tiztRLj6c/s1027/Engraving+of+Gustavus+Adolphus.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; font-family: arial; font-size: x-large; font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1027" data-original-width="800" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhamZ4VIMdAGkCfgt7ffuAuF1K-c6fyy7Nvv8flRW-ZLp52pT1L4EbZP7HXxLiYToVeyx3_NBhxfZsynX8vBQIyBDSsT92KA3iWt-p89BR57r_xbzoDFO0Dx24mI8VZwiRTg1tiztRLj6c/s320/Engraving+of+Gustavus+Adolphus.jpg" /></a><span style="font-family: arial;"><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><i>T</i></span><span style="font-size: large; font-style: italic;">h</span></span><span style="font-style: italic; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">e Lion of the North, as many called Gustavus Adolphus, </span></span></span><span style="font-style: italic; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">started his reign at a young age and oversaw war, reform, and cooperation. All led to the establishment of Sweden as a Baltic superpower.</span></span></div></span><span style="font-style: italic; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><span><a name='more'></a></span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><b><br /></b></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><b>Military Build-Up<br /></b><br /></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">Gustavus Adolphus always faced a threat of war. Besides this, he wanted
Sweden to be a powerful country to stand for its interest. The Thirty Years’
War became not only Gustavus’ desired theater to show Sweden’s might, but also
a political and economic opportunity for his Kingdom. <b><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2015/01/military-innovation-gustavus-adolphus.html">Thus, military reforms became a major chapter of his reign</a></b>.</div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br />By the 1620s, Gustavus Adolphus aimed to establish an army with Swedish
units at its core. In a time when mercenaries dominated the battlefield, he reduced
this reliance to build an army of Sweden for Sweden. Inspired by the
innovations of his childhood idol Maurice of Nassau, the Prince of Orange,
Gustavus set out forging a revolutionary military force.</div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br />He built up a national army through conscription. For Gustavus,
mercenaries came with a high cost and high risk. Common problems with
mercenaries included questions of loyalty, discipline, and effectiveness.
For this, the King wanted to reduce reliance on these soldiers-for-hire and
place a conscripted Swedish soldier at the center. Financially speaking,
paying and training a peasant cost less than a mercenary. For this, in
collaboration with Axel Oxenstierna, the reforms in the local administration
including the formation of local conscription councils. These councils choose
the men to join the provincial regiment. Gustavus understood the pains of
conscriptions and to maintain support for it he asked for the Riksdag’s
approval for the number of men to be levied for the army. The Riksdag approved and
conscription resulted in the build-up of a 40,000-man army.</div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br />Following successful recruitment, Gustavus reformed the military’s
doctrine and weaponry. In this, he hired officers who served under Maurice of
Nassau as advisors. With limitations in manpower, he compensated by developing
the army’s mobility and speed. Instead of the rigid tercio formation developed by <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2014/01/gonzalo-de-cordoba-revolutionizing.html">Gonzalo Fernandez de Cordoba</a></b>, he adopted the linear formations. Instead of squares,
soldiers lined up to fire in salvo, a famous formation that defined battles in
the 18th century. Moreover, he also divided the regiments into smaller and
faster brigades. He envisioned the brigades as maneuverable units capable of
reacting faster than the conventional tercio. His trust in maneuverability
later inspired Napoleon Bonaparte with his corps system with its effectivity epitomized
in the Battle of Austerlitz in 1805. Beyond mobile units, Gustavus also
developed light horse-drawn artillery capable of moving around in the battle in
a matter of minutes. He also armed his soldiers with lighter rifles that no
longer need a stand to fire. Moreover, Gustavus also recruited Finnish light
cavalry called <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2014/12/hakkapeliitta-thirty-years-war-and-rise.html">Hakkapeliita</a></b> to
strike and weaken the positions of the enemy with accuracy and speed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus, the word light became a widely used word
to define Gustavus’ army.</div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi0F6SEUVXlzCeaeHqpMEMKPItHsefeOnz4L96hLBA2HK6p4xRu_dss9UYUQubcODG3hKUP_XIUHiQGHlAGHGo8a7tSkxNbH0mdCPLLpsCGbbvrr3FfC_LNjDzY1rIoT0bTXQJVZHoOM18/s315/Hakkapeliittas.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="315" data-original-width="214" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi0F6SEUVXlzCeaeHqpMEMKPItHsefeOnz4L96hLBA2HK6p4xRu_dss9UYUQubcODG3hKUP_XIUHiQGHlAGHGo8a7tSkxNbH0mdCPLLpsCGbbvrr3FfC_LNjDzY1rIoT0bTXQJVZHoOM18/s0/Hakkapeliittas.jpg" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Hakkapeliita</span><br /></td></tr></tbody></table><br />With all the innovations he made, Gustavus understood the importance of
keeping morale high. For this, he showed tremendous respect to his soldiers
despite showing equal toughness in the discipline. He lived simple and on the
battlefield, he fought with his men. He even led the charge to the enemy and
faced dangers head-on. His hands-on leadership later turned him into a legend.</div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br />Gustavus Adolphus reshaped the Swedish military into an unconventional
military force. He abandoned heavy reliance on mercenaries and built a national
army. He developed this national army into a light, mobile, and fast-moving
military he viewed to be effective against the rigid mercenary armies of
Europe. Under his charismatic leadership, he led this army into one of Europe's
most bloody conflicts – the Thirty Years’ War.</div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br /><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Gustavus Adolphus and the Thirty
Years’ War<br /></b><br /></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">King Gustav II of Sweden reigned amidst the bloody Thirty Years’ War in
continental Europe. He weighed on his reasons and finally decided to engage.
With his reformed military, he set out to fight for his chosen cause and
introduced the power of Sweden.</div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhAed9tcKRPQoBctYZS681Oajl9rhuj7UQrNysvyp6V7w4NJQuy3lMKUps4cPdy3c8a3piFF6ewoybdtpIlR9xlmMHItq1C2aEKWITNWWIy-J92Ui57XQUXzT62evTx3V1nyWQaEV0a9w0/s1280/The+Battle+of+Rocroi%252C+by+Augusto+Ferrer-Dalmau.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="789" data-original-width="1280" height="394" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhAed9tcKRPQoBctYZS681Oajl9rhuj7UQrNysvyp6V7w4NJQuy3lMKUps4cPdy3c8a3piFF6ewoybdtpIlR9xlmMHItq1C2aEKWITNWWIy-J92Ui57XQUXzT62evTx3V1nyWQaEV0a9w0/w640-h394/The+Battle+of+Rocroi%252C+by+Augusto+Ferrer-Dalmau.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">The Battle of Rocroi, by Augusto Ferrer-Dalmau</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br />Many reasons pushed Gustavus Adolphus to enter the Thirty Years’ War
stemming from religious, economic, as well as political aspects. The Thirty
Years’ War pitted the Catholic Holy Roman Empire against the various Protestant German States. Gustav dreaded the fall of the German Protestant states as this
threatened the existence of the Swedish protestant church in long term. As a
religious man, he viewed the war as a crusade against oppression and
persecution of the Catholic Holy Roman Empire. On the other hand, economically,
he also worried about the threat to Sweden’s major partner and a fellow Protestant
state – the Dutch Republic. He also viewed the war as a means to gain new
territory, especially along the Baltic coast. He understood the tremendous
value of taxes and duties in lands on the continent. Furthermore, he received
handsome subsidies from the greatest rival of the Holy Roman Empire the Kingdom
of France. Lastly, besides a threat to the Church, he dreaded the Holy Roman
Empire together with Poland, 2 Catholic kingdoms, building up a navy in the
Baltic Sea. He saw the threat to Sweden’s position as well as on his throne as
Poland’s king might re-ignite their claim to the Swedish throne. With the
economic opportunities and religious as well as political threats, Gustavus knew
the side to take.</div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br />With the case at hand, Gustavus then waited for the most opportune time to
enter. He observed Denmark’s intervention to the war and witnessed his
Kingdom’s rival in the east defeated. He gave hints though on a possibility of
bigger Swedish participation in the conflict in 1628. He consented to surprising cooperation with Sweden’s nemesis Denmark to form an intervention
force to relieve the besieged Protestant city of Stralsund in Pomerania. In
1629, the Truce of Altmark allowed Gustavus to mobilize his entire military to
finally enter the Thirty Years’ war.</div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br />In 1630, Riksdag discussed Sweden’s involvement to the Thirty Years’
War. In end, the body approved the King’s decision to engage and Gustavus on
his part made a farewell speech to his people like a father bidding farewell to
his children. He said:<br /><blockquote>“And as usually happens, the pitcher is carried to the well till it
finally breaks, so it may also go with me. After having in many dangers for my
country’s welfare shed my blood, though hitherto by God’s gracious protection
my life has been spared, yet finally, I may have to yield it. Therefore, I would
commend you all to God’s gracious care, and pray that after this toilsome life
we may meet together in the heavenly and eternal life.”</blockquote><br />In June 1630, he personally led the Swedish expeditionary force of
16,000 men to fight in the war. They landed in Peenemunde and set up
headquarters in Pomerania’s capital Stettin. Gustavus Adolphus kept his
soldiers disciplined with a strictly implemented <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2020/09/accounts-gustavus-adolphus-articles-of.html">Articles of War</a></b>. Upon landing, Gustavus had a series of objectives
in his mind to accomplish. First, he planned to liberate the Southern German The Protestant States from the imperial yolk. Second, he wanted to convince the
Protestant German states to form the Corpus
Evangelicorum or a Protestant League. Third, he desired for indemnity
collection to pay for the war cost with interest. He, however, met mistrust and
suspicion from the German Protestant princes. Instead of being viewed as
liberators, many Princes saw the Swedes as another conquering power. Rumors of Gustavus
Adolphus seeking the position of the Holy Roman Empire also rang in the air despite a lack of concrete evidence. The mistrust made George William of Brandenburg,
Gustavus’ brother-in-law, to refuse passage to the Swedish army destined to the
besieged Protestant city of Magdeburg. This refusal led to the destruction of
Magdeburg in the hands of the imperial army.</div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjxmC7uHcJt0h37KGiHz_snecl6KRaknJet9cHod8VAw6RQc1Kecz5t0zzkCDTgs1mu5CxHPYOQgf4I4vhRaxP6M32GgHJ2RGetecJlp8GkwUmMD3NvWtU31UUVSYyXB2Zf6qHksVyrBfg/s790/Sacking+of+Magdeburg%252C+1631.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="628" data-original-width="790" height="509" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjxmC7uHcJt0h37KGiHz_snecl6KRaknJet9cHod8VAw6RQc1Kecz5t0zzkCDTgs1mu5CxHPYOQgf4I4vhRaxP6M32GgHJ2RGetecJlp8GkwUmMD3NvWtU31UUVSYyXB2Zf6qHksVyrBfg/w640-h509/Sacking+of+Magdeburg%252C+1631.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Sacking of Magdeburg, 1631</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br />For about a year, Gustavus camped in Pomerania while making diplomatic
headways. In spring 1631, he secured French assurances cementing the
Franco-Swedish alliance under the Treaty of Bärwalde. He then received a
request for assistance from the Elector of Saxony John George I who sought
Swedish aid after imperial forces commander the Count of Tilly demanded his
army’s disbandment.</div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br />Gustavus marched his forces to Saxony and joined forces with John
George I. In September 1631, together they faced the imperial army near Leipzig
in the fields of Breitenfeld. In the battle, Gustavus unleashed the effectivity
of his reformed military force and heralded the dawn of Swedish power. He won
strings of victories earning the epithet of Lion of the North. By December
1631, the Swedish forces secured Mainz. Despite victories, his face soured
over the selfishness of the Protestant German princes. He realized the lack of
unity and greed of the German princes abandoning his hopes for a Protestant
League. He only then desired territorial concessions, especially Pomerania.</div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br />On the other hand, German princes continued to mistrust Gustavus
Adolphus. The Swedish King had rewarded occupied German lands to distinguished
supporters and commanders. Moreover, they disgust over Gustavus' treatment of
them like some petty feudal lords. Despite the differences and suspicions,
Gustavus continued to work with German princes.</div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br />In 1632, the Swedish monarch targeted the capture of the capital of the
Holy Roman Empire – Vienna. However, before proceeding to the majestic city, he
must capture Bavaria. The whole year then focused in a campaign in Southern
Germany. By May 1632, Swedish forces captured Munich. However, he soon received
news that the city of Nuremberg in his north faced capture in the hands of the
talented mercenary commander of the Holy Roman Empire Albrecht von Wallenstein.
He once again met the man who defeated him in 1629 in the Battle of Stuhm. He
then marched north and faced the Imperial army in the fields of Lützen on
November 6, 1632.<br />The Battle of Lützen entered military lore as Gustavus Adolphus’ last
great battle. In the heat of battle Gustavus accidentally separated with his
soldiers. He stumbled upon imperial soldiers and fell from his horse. Worst, he
wore no armor as his wound irritate him when wearing one. Imperial soldiers
then demanded his identity to which he answered proudly exclaimed, “I am the
King of Sweden.” The answer earned the Lion of the North a bullet in the head.</div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj2YrTlUOdMxzk65LqUZFtVekrowW1ygKDE4lU3ZIfnNE3HIIPzbZvcCevC8GK8vlDncOnPPC7UGxfVfhXwLvahzyULjgQusQAcW8kfOBY1NIfYCR0A5As1Lt6TFWHZxhg11XuQ19kuBVo/s1280/Battle+of+Lutzen.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="869" data-original-width="1280" height="434" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj2YrTlUOdMxzk65LqUZFtVekrowW1ygKDE4lU3ZIfnNE3HIIPzbZvcCevC8GK8vlDncOnPPC7UGxfVfhXwLvahzyULjgQusQAcW8kfOBY1NIfYCR0A5As1Lt6TFWHZxhg11XuQ19kuBVo/w640-h434/Battle+of+Lutzen.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Battle of Lutzen</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Aftermath<br /></b><br /></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">The Battle of Lützen secured a Protestant victory at the cost of the
life of one of Sweden’s most illustrious leaders. The news saddened the Kingdom
and gave worries to the future. Gustavus’ daughter Christina still a minor
succeeded as monarch and a regency council headed by Axel Oxenstierna presided
over state affairs. The smooth running of the country even under the regency
showed the effectiveness of the government reforms launched during Gustavus’
reign. Furthermore, Sweden by the end of the Thirty Years’ War stood as an
Empire that lasted until 1721.</div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br /><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Summing Up<br /></b><br /></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">Gustavus Adolphus lived an epic life. From a kingdom bogged down in
political tensions, diplomatic crisis, and terrible wars, he luckily partnered
with a talented Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna to turn the tables. They made peace
with neighboring countries with most of Sweden had an advantage. They established
a spirit of cooperation ripe for reform. They reorganized the government that
mirrored modern governments and promoted meritocracy and initiative. They
modernized the military that showed its capability in the battlefields of
Europe in the Thirty Years’ War. His tragic death in the fields of Lützen
turned Gustavus Adolphus into a legend. His reign marked the beginning of one
of Sweden’s most glorious period.</div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br /></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><b>See also:</b></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2020/09/who-was-gustavus-adolphus-part-2.html">Gustavus Adolphus - Part 2</a></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2020/09/who-was-gustavus-adolphus-part-1.html">Gustavus Adolphus - Part 1</a></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2015/01/military-innovation-gustavus-adolphus.html">Military Innovations - Gustavus Adolphus</a></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br /></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><div style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">Bibliography:</span></b></span></div><div style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium; text-align: left;"><div style="font-family: arial; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">Websites:</span></b></div><div style="font-family: arial; text-align: justify;"><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-size: large;">“Gustavus II,” Encyclopedia of World Biography. <i>Encyclopedia.com</i>. Accessed on August 11, 2020. URL: https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/history/scandinavian-history-biographies/gustavus-ii<br /><br /></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-size: large;">Roberts, Michael. “Gustavus Adolphus.” <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>. Accessed on September 5, 2020. URL: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Gustav-II-Adolf/Entrance-into-the-Thirty-Years-War<br /><br /></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">Books:</span></b></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-size: large;">Grimberg, Carl. <i>A History of Sweden</i>. Translated by C.W. Foss. Rock Island, Illinois, Augustana Book Concern, 1935.<br /><br /></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-size: large;">Andersson, Ingvar. <i>A History of Sweden</i>. Translated by Carolyn Hannay. New York, New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1968. </span></div></div></div></div>
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<br /></span></span></div>Bob Corcuerahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14748111488274035197noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3147004568822447450.post-37592791914140885992020-09-27T20:10:00.002+08:002020-09-27T21:03:17.098+08:00Who was Gustavus Adolphus? - Part 2<div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><span style="text-align: justify;"><i><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhg1kzq1YSHMuHHZynRUAtRjXD882rKM9n2_MkaJSX_nznB6bq89IdPZhKkMBEVi2Gi9c7d_4Q76UfiR_fa88-iHSJFjL4BUrfDeq1_GDJisRsf0H-NkgX4S3c6y7HuK_wD0Ni1SAZAy7Y/s481/Gustavus+Adolphus+during+the+Battle+of+Breitenfeld.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="481" data-original-width="381" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhg1kzq1YSHMuHHZynRUAtRjXD882rKM9n2_MkaJSX_nznB6bq89IdPZhKkMBEVi2Gi9c7d_4Q76UfiR_fa88-iHSJFjL4BUrfDeq1_GDJisRsf0H-NkgX4S3c6y7HuK_wD0Ni1SAZAy7Y/w316-h400/Gustavus+Adolphus+during+the+Battle+of+Breitenfeld.jpg" width="316" /></a></div></i></span></span><span style="font-family: arial;"><i><span style="font-size: large;">Th</span></i></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-style: italic;"><span style="font-size: large;">e Lion of the North, as many called Gustavus Adolphus, started his reign at a young age and oversaw war, reform, and cooperation. All led to the establishment of Sweden as a Baltic superpower.<span><a name='more'></a></span></span></span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></b></div><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Reign
of Lion of the North<br /></span></b><i><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Ending
the Wars<br /></span></i><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Gustavus Adolphus faced a tough road
ahead of his reign. He had to secure his throne from the Polish threat, to end
the wars his father started, to unite the country, and to rebuild the Kingdom
as a whole. A long road that Gustavus Adolphus walked into history.</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">While facing the challenges of
legitimacy, the teenage King also dealt with the wars against the Danes and
the Russians. He won peace with the Danes on January 28, 1613, with the signing
of the Peace of Knäred. The peace, however, went into Sweden’s disadvantage. It
placed under Danish control the port of Älvsborg that provided Sweden with vital
access to the North Sea. Moreover, it stipulated that Sweden must pay 1 million
Riksdaler to regain the port from Denmark. The so-called Älvsborg Ransom tested
the determination of Gustavus Adolphus and the Swedish people. The crown
imposed new taxes and raise others. For years, all suffered from taxation
crippling the economy. So much the desperation for the ransom that even silver
in the King’s table went into the furnace to become coins for payment. It took
until 1619 for Sweden to pay the ransom and finally end a terrible affair
with Denmark.</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhrlM38Mf2K-0xYPVXbeIZxRrIgqjnqhPsz_CfE8hEP_FxyxP2ql-HSbMPhJdcAN19LfEJhDz_m3pbpuOeSSyLPqHiCnyQK85Iok6ZndnYt3h2NKMYQCD4GabGTlU6HFt4Q57VrEphjKgA/s1280/Old+%25C3%2584lvsborg+Fortress.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="623" data-original-width="1280" height="312" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhrlM38Mf2K-0xYPVXbeIZxRrIgqjnqhPsz_CfE8hEP_FxyxP2ql-HSbMPhJdcAN19LfEJhDz_m3pbpuOeSSyLPqHiCnyQK85Iok6ZndnYt3h2NKMYQCD4GabGTlU6HFt4Q57VrEphjKgA/w640-h312/Old+%25C3%2584lvsborg+Fortress.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Old Älvsborg Fortress</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">While Denmark brought an economic crisis
to Sweden, Gustavus’ peace with the Russians brought much-needed relief.
Gustavus continued his father’s exploitation of Russian weakness measuring the
new Tsar Michael Romanov an easy prey. He wanted to grab as many Russian lands
on the Baltic coast as possible. Moreover, he feared Russia’s potential to be a
contender in the Baltic Sea. Hence, cutting off Russia from the body of water
also meant a geopolitical masterstroke. He continued the war until in 1617 when
Swedish and Russian diplomats signed the Treaty of Stolbovo (Stolbova). Under
the agreement, Sweden annexed Ingria and Kexholm that cut off Russia from the
Baltic. It placed under the mercy of Sweden the passage of the Tsardom’s
exports to Europe exacting duties and tolls. The setting contributed to the
payment of the Älvsborg Ransom and the replenishment of the Crown coffers. For
his achievement, Gustav boasted to the Riksdag, “I hope to God, that the
Russians will feel it a bit difficult to skip over that little brook.”</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">On the other hand, the conflict with
Poland held a vital significance for the solution to the problem of legitimacy.
The deposed Sigismund III Vasa remained a contender to the Swedish throne.
Luckily for Gustavus, Sigismund also engaged in conflict with Russia. Like Karl
IX, he too claimed the Tsardom for himself. The conflict gave Gustavus time to
build up his forces to challenge the Polish King in war. In 1617, Gustavus
addressed the Riksdag in Orebro where he vilified Sigismund:<br /></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><blockquote>“What have we to expect of King
Sigismund who is not only evil himself, but allows himself to be governed by
that Devil’s party the Jesuits, the authors of the grievous tyranny in Spain,
France and elsewhere?”</blockquote></span><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: large;">In 1617, Gustavus tested the waters
first before engaging in full conflict with Poland. He launched an expedition
to capture Dünamünde near Riga. When this expedition, failed, he then strengthened
his military before trying once again in 1621. He took the opportunity when
Ottoman attacked Poland in 1620. He started to build an alliance with Poland’s
neighbors, in particular, Brandenburg-Prussia. For love with political
advantages, he married Maria Eleanora. In 1621, He began his conquest of Riga
for a month capturing the city on September 15, 1621. He then started a
campaign to capture the region of Livonia which lasted until 1626. He then sought
to cease ports around the Vistula Delta vital to Polish trade and economy. His
campaign dragged on for 3 years meeting success after success. However, in June
1629, he suffered a defeat in the Battle of Stuhm where he encountered his
greatest adversary Albrecht von Wallenstein. Despite the defeat, strategic
victories won Sweden an upper hand in the negotiations. The Truce of Altmark
signed in 1629 ended the Polish threat to Sweden and Gustavus’ crown.
Furthermore, the agreement provided Sweden with additional revenue through
the collection of duties from the ports of Danzig and Courland.</span></span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: arial;"><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgakshyngCRBrxj-w64sHMhfhQSVPS_F4Symf35_ja_D6zCPH9z4DDJcVuU-tduBYmTH5LzAj9WPOoNyvfv0y9R9tzyY1WbAZmw_PHrqQOqmbE8S0UZljb6vNB4JnUNzxriu9AqZSskhug/s415/Maria+Eleonora+of+Brandenburg.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="415" data-original-width="330" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgakshyngCRBrxj-w64sHMhfhQSVPS_F4Symf35_ja_D6zCPH9z4DDJcVuU-tduBYmTH5LzAj9WPOoNyvfv0y9R9tzyY1WbAZmw_PHrqQOqmbE8S0UZljb6vNB4JnUNzxriu9AqZSskhug/s320/Maria+Eleonora+of+Brandenburg.jpg" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; text-align: start;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Maria Eleonora of Brandenburg</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Gustavus ended the conflicts which his
father endowed to him. All went well in the end despite the difficulties. He
finished the war with the Danes at a great cost though but ended the war with
Russia and Poland with great economic gains. Gustavus Adolphus completed his
early challenges overseas.</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span><i><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Axel
Oxenstierna and Domestic Reforms</span></i></div><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></i><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Axel Oxenstierna, a prominent nobleman,
took the position of High Chancellor in 1612. Many thought the brilliant
politician and administrator to be the real power behind the throne - to be the
<i>de facto</i> leader of Sweden. Despite
this expectation, he became a trusted and able partner and counselor to the
young energetic monarch. Together they transformed Sweden fit for its future
role as a great power in the Baltic.</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjzywjIt07FLzhM_iR5b8yJ9Jk0arEQB0nN2clDbZoNdA84DToMYG2PlJmHrHPWhQo8TjSHqh7WjzV4tInh2Nh_n535WnInOk8fMaunrGXn_mbEGekcloSBnSfq9cSbt9aq_SJEok0B1gQ/s600/Axel+Oxenstierna%252C+1626.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="600" data-original-width="561" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjzywjIt07FLzhM_iR5b8yJ9Jk0arEQB0nN2clDbZoNdA84DToMYG2PlJmHrHPWhQo8TjSHqh7WjzV4tInh2Nh_n535WnInOk8fMaunrGXn_mbEGekcloSBnSfq9cSbt9aq_SJEok0B1gQ/s320/Axel+Oxenstierna%252C+1626.jpg" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Axel Oxenstierna, 1626</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">King Gustav and Chancellor Oxenstierna
worked to transform the government into an organized and efficient institution.
A government that valued merit and service to the kingdom. They went against the
usual governments in Europe that operated under the whims of the monarchs where
favoritism and heritage brought promotion and appointments despite lack of
talent and skills. This, with the assistance of Chancellor Oxenstierna, came to
fruition.</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">The work began in 1614 when Gustavus
Adolphus and Oxenstierna inaugurated the Svea Court of Appeal. They tasked the
court to serve as the highest judicial court in the Kingdom - in other words, the
Supreme Court of Sweden. Afterward, additional courts of appeals also
began operation in Åbo and Dorpat.</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Government reorganization started in
1618. It focused on the establishment of different government boards or
colleges that mirrored modern-day ministries or departments. On that year,
Oxenstierna and Gustavus established the Financial Board and the Chancery. The
Chancery became the centerpiece of the government as described by Oxenstierna
as <i>“the soul of the Kingdom.”</i> The
additional boards the Admiralty and the War Board began meeting in 1632. In
1634, Oxenstierna cemented the organization of the government under his Form of
Government Ordinance. The boards met regularly as same as the heads of the
boards convening as the state council regularly in Stockholm. With definite
responsibilities, the boards and the government as a whole continued to operate
despite the absence of the King. An effective bureaucracy with autonomy and
structure to operate effectively without much oversight perfectly fitting for King
Gustavus who went overseas to fight in campaigns.</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">On the local level, Gustavus and
Oxenstierna reformed the administration throughout the 1620s. It focused on
establishing central supervision. They divided the country into provinces with
each having a capital where an appointed governor resided. The Crown tasked the
governors to manage taxation and to supervise the conscription in villages.
Conscription took an important aspect in the nation as Gustavus worked to build
up a national army.</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">While the crown government reorganized,
the Riksdag also transformed into a respected institution of the Kingdom. The
body served as the representative assembly of the kingdom. They confirmed the
direct rule of King Gustavus for concessions that ensured limitations in the
power of the Crown. Nevertheless, the body operated with few rules and
organization. Loud and lack of decorum rang across their assembly hall.
Oxenstierna worked closely with the Riksdag to change this condition. In 1617, he
with Gustavus' approval issued an ordinance in 1617. It established the
composition of the Riksdag with representatives from 4 estates of the country:
(1) Nobility, (2) Clergy, (3) Burgher/Townspeople, and (4) Peasantry. The
Chancellor also established the Riksdag’s procedure which remained in use until
1866. In turn, the Riksdag transformed into a respectable body even to King
Gustavus who spoke to them with great eloquence and importance. The Riksdag and
the King came into understanding through the mediation of Chancellor
Oxenstierna. This cordial relation created political stability that
contributed to Sweden’s rise as a great power.</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Though the Riksdag composed of
representatives of different estates, the nobility held the greatest power. It
stood in equal to the King and represented by the Chancellor himself. The
Charter of 1617 guaranteed the rights of the nobility and gave the estate a
monopoly in vital government positions. Nevertheless, the Chancellor and
Gustavus prevented complacency within the nobility by challenging them to be
competent and dedicated civil servants of the Kingdom. Such a challenge went into
the 1626 Statutes of the Nobility. Furthermore, they made the composition of
the nobility open, thus, men from other estates with talent and skills had the
opportunity to be part of the nobility and serve the government. The
competition between the old aristocrats or those from traditional nobles and
the new aristocracy resulted in the training of skilled officials to man the
government – the so-called “aristocratic bureaucracy.”</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">To foster great talents, Gustavus Adolphus
invested in education. In the 1620s he promoted the establishment of many
Gymnasia which served as the early form of secondary education in Sweden. He
also funded the development of the University of Uppsala by donating 300
estates dubbed as the “Gustavian Hereditaments”. He also established new
universities such as the University of Tartu, which grew as a hub for higher
education in the Baltic Region.</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgett8ImnewC1w4ksSIr8Ga-WS32Ebc753ucnp7rstqfg72jcb2ZbcrBeGAK2iRr6aMOPzL-5vNaKJ9KTIBd_LE645yRJE8DY9WL-K4qTQnWEMdm_iPaHJE_0Jxc3JzJwTTVpSdd42e6uE/s1000/University+of+Uppsala%252C+1789.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="765" data-original-width="1000" height="490" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgett8ImnewC1w4ksSIr8Ga-WS32Ebc753ucnp7rstqfg72jcb2ZbcrBeGAK2iRr6aMOPzL-5vNaKJ9KTIBd_LE645yRJE8DY9WL-K4qTQnWEMdm_iPaHJE_0Jxc3JzJwTTVpSdd42e6uE/w640-h490/University+of+Uppsala%252C+1789.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">University of Uppsala, 1789</span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2020/09/funding-empire-gustavus-adolphus-and.html">Economic reforms also went into Gustavus’ agenda</a></b>. For centuries, Sweden delved in barter trade while the
rest of Europe turned to money economy and mercantilism. King Gustavus and the Chancellor
worked for the economy’s transition to finance future military and diplomatic
endeavors. The Crown began to reduce taxation in kind and promoted payments in
coins. Increasing revenue also became a focus for the Crown. Monopolies in
the copper and iron industries kept while new monopolies in salt in 1628 and grain
trade in 1631 aimed to further boost Crown profits.</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Sweden enjoyed a great surged in the sale of
its metals. The country topped Europe’s list of major suppliers of iron and
copper. The introduction of copper coins in Spain in 1599 resulted in higher
demands and higher prices. Government revenues from its copper monopoly surged. Next
to copper, iron provided a great boost in the country’s economy. The King’s
welcoming of foreign talent and investment paid off. Dutch investments and Dutch
loans updated Sweden’s iron mining and processing. Men like Louis de Geer
introduced innovations that gave Swedish iron products higher value. The metal
industry powered Sweden for about a century funding the foundation of an empire
that Gustavus desired.</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Gustavus Adolphus and Axel Oxenstierna
built a Sweden fit and ready for their ambitions. With an efficient government,
a nobility dedicated to the service of the country, and an economy profiting,
they prepared for their project to make the Baltic Sea the biggest Swedish
lake.</span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b>See also:</b></span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2020/09/who-was-gustavus-adolphus-part-3.html">Gustavus Adolphus - Part 3</a></span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2020/09/who-was-gustavus-adolphus-part-1.html">Gustavus Adolphus - Part 1</a></span></div><div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><a href="https://searchinginhistory.blogspot.com/2020/09/funding-empire-gustavus-adolphus-and.html">Gustavus Adolphus and the Swedish Economy</a></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: x-large; font-style: italic; text-align: justify;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">Bibliography:</span></b></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><div style="font-family: arial; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">Websites:</span></b></div><div style="font-family: arial; text-align: justify;"><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-size: large;">“Gustavus II,” Encyclopedia of World Biography. <i>Encyclopedia.com</i>. Accessed on August 11, 2020. URL: https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/history/scandinavian-history-biographies/gustavus-ii<br /><br /></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-size: large;">Roberts, Michael. “Gustavus Adolphus.” <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>. Accessed on September 5, 2020. URL: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Gustav-II-Adolf/Entrance-into-the-Thirty-Years-War<br /><br /></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">Books:</span></b></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-size: large;">Grimberg, Carl. <i>A History of Sweden</i>. Translated by C.W. Foss. Rock Island, Illinois, Augustana Book Concern, 1935.<br /><br /></span></div><div style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-size: large;">Andersson, Ingvar. <i>A History of Sweden</i>. Translated by Carolyn Hannay. New York, New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1968. </span></div></div></div>Bob Corcuerahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14748111488274035197noreply@blogger.com0