The
Achaemenid ruled the earliest largest Empire in the ancient world dominating
the Middle East, Anatolia, and Northern Africa from their rise in 559 BCE until
their downfall in 330 BCE.
Foundation and Rise
The
Persians began as a nomads in the Zagros Mountains in the Iranian Plateau. By
developing water tunnels carved out of mountains called qannats, the Persians turned into sedimentary and agricultural.
During the fall of the Assyrians, the Persians became a subject another great
power – the Medes.
Under
the Medes, Achaemenes or Hakhamanish in Assyrian ruled a minor Persian kingdom
called Anshan. From him emerged the ruling dynasty of the Persian Empire – the
Achaemenids. However, many questioned the existence of Achaemenes suggesting his
existence created by King Darius I to legitimize his claim to the throne.
From
Achaemenes emerged King Teispes from whom 2 lines that produced the Kings of
Persia. The 1st line produced the Kings Cyrus I, Cambyses I, Cyrus II the
Great, and Cambyses II. The 2nd line said to have produced Darius I and his
successors.
Persians
went from a subject people to a major player in the region and history under
Cyrus II the Great (r. 559 – 529 BCE).
Cyrus the Great |
Reign of Cyrus II
Cyrus
II founded the Persian Empire. He rebelled against his Mede overlords and
embarked in successful military campaigns cementing the empire he built through
a policy of tolerance.
The
Persian King fought for dominance against the Mede King Astyages who he
defeated in the Battle of Pasargadae. From then on, the Persians and the Medes
united laying the foundations of the Empire.
He
then turned his attention to expanding his dominions beyond and marched against
Anatolia. There he defeated the powerful Kingdom of Lydia and its legendary
wealthy King Croesus. To consolidate his rule in Anatolia, instead of slaying
his beaten foe, he befriend King Croesus who later became advisor. After
Anatolia, he then conquered another prosperous city – Babylon. After the city
fell, Cyrus did not sack the city, rather he respected the people of Babylon
and their religion by paying homage to the Babylonian deity of Marduk.
Cyrus
pacified conquered territories through the practice of tolerance that united
the Empire into a single realm despite differences in culture, religion, and
language of its population. He respected local culture and even took part
himself. The empire turned multilingual with several languages used from Old
Persian language to various others such as Elamite, Akkadian, and Aramaic. It
later expanded with Greek and Egypt as the Empire expanded. This created an
atmosphere of security and status quo. Hence, toleration and embrace of
diversity contributed to the success of the Empire.
Jews
also fared better under the Persians. Cyrus the Great liberated them from the
Babylonian yolk and allowed them to return to their homeland Israel. He also
promised to them to return their treasures plundered by the Babylonians from
their conquest decades ago.
Cyrus
the Great’s reign ended with his fall in battle in 529 BCE during a campaign to
crush the Scythian tribe called Massageta.
Lost army of Cambyses |
Reign of Cambyses II
Cambyses
II (r. 529 – 522 BCE) reigned after the brilliance of Cyrus the Great’s rule
and continued the empire’s expansion. In 525 BCE, he annexed the fertile lands
of Egypt. From there, Cambyses desired to conquer more lands in Northern Africa.
Plans for further lands in region never materialize. His plans of conquest of
Ethiopia and Carthage ended without much success.
Cambyses,
however, ensued controversy over the nature of his reign. Some called him mad
and brutal while other saw him tolerant and respectful. Much of criticism of
his reign came from the major source in Persian history – the Greek Historian
Herodotus. On the other hand, Egyptian sources portrayed him as respectful and
tolerant of locals following in the footsteps of his father.
His
reign, however, ended in disaster. A pretender, a magi with the real name of
Gaumata according to Darius, took power by claiming to be Cambyses II’s brother
Bardiya (Smerdis). Gaumata took control of the capital Susa gained support by
promising a break from taxation and conscription for 3 years. Cambyses left
Egypt to dash to the capital and end the pretender’s reign. On the way though,
Cambyses passed away.
Height of Persian
Glory
The
Persian interlude lasted for few months before it ended with the rise of King
Darius I (r.522 – 486 BCE). His reign saw the apex of Persian power, wealth,
and influence, but also saw the greatest challenge to its position sowing the
seeds to a long conflict – the Greco-Persian War.
In
522 BCE, with Cambyses dead and a pretender seating in the throne, Darius
successfully plotted with other Persian nobles and deposed Gaumata. He then
cunningly took power and established his reign. However, with the temporary
unrest within the monarchy, rebellions erupted across the Empire. According to
the Behistun Inscription, Darius embarked in a campaign to reestablish control
over the whole Empire.
Darius
quelled numerous rebellion in every corner of the Empire then turning his
attention in consolidating his power. He enacted profound reforms of the Empire’s
administration and security.
In
this light, he increased the number of Satraps or provinces of the Empire. From
10 Satraps during the reign of Cyrus the Great, he raise it to 20. He appointed
satraps or governors to oversee day to day affairs and make sure to deliver
designated tribute and taxes to the King.
He
also improved government bureaucracy. He made records keeping a duty of
government officials. He also maintained stifling supervision and strict
discipline through employment of spies and inspectors.
He
then strengthened the military preparing it ready to quell any rebellions. He
established a special unit of elite soldiers called the Immortals numbering to
10,000. He had local granaries built to provide supplies to army units deployed
in provinces.
He
then improved the Empire’s communication and infrastructure. He improved the
Royal Road that connected the capital Susa to the western major city of Sardis
in Anatolia. The development of the Road connected provinces through a postal
service.
To
keep the population content, he delivered prosperity. Economic prosperity came
through robust trade of different resources under the Empire’s fold. A standard
currency called Daric based on silver and gold supplemented payments made in
kind. Infrastructure projects stimulated further trade and employment. The
Royal Road already demonstrated it. Another came in form of the Suez Canal that
connected the Nile River and the Red sea. Multiple irrigation projects, in form
of canals and qannats, increased food production throughout the Empire.
Cultural Development
Washed
with tremendous wealth from the Empire’s resources, the wealthy and powerful
financed great cultural and artistic endeavors that displayed the majesty and
sophistication of the Persians.
Architecture
bloomed. Kings and nobles ordered palaces built. Susa and Pasargadae displayed
elements of Persian architecture that blended different styles from the diverse
culture of the Empire. In 518 BCE, Darius ordered the construction of a new
capital aimed to dwarfed previous capitals in splendor – Persepolis.
Persian
gardens became a common site in the homes of the elite. The basic design of
gardens called the Chahar Bagh or 4-part garden became the basis of garden
design through ages outliving even the Empire that started it. The design
included a central intersection from which it divided an area into 4 or
divisible by 4 segments with each being treated as a separated garden. The
marvelous use of irrigation and display of order created an effect of paradise
on earth.
Under
Darius, the religion of Zoroastrianism saw a rise in prominence. From the
Behistun Inscription, it saw the piety of the Persian king to the god of the
Zoroastrians – Ahura Mazda. It displayed the earliest monotheistic idea along
with Judaism and ahead of Christianity. Though Zoroastrianism became de facto state religion, tolerance of
religion continued.
Military Campaigns
With
much of the rebellions and domestic issue being dealt with reforms, Darius
turned his attention in fulfilling his kingly duty of being a conqueror. He
brought the Empire’s energy in expanding to the lands east until it reached the
Indus Valley. He also had the Persian army cross the Dardanelles and attacked
the European Scythians. Thrace and Macedonia submitted to Persian suzerainty
that made Persia virtually controlling the access to the Black Sea.
His
latest military and diplomatic achievements, however, sparked a conflict that
would threatened the supremacy of the Empire.
19th century engraving of Greeks fighting Persians |
Greco-Persian War
(490 – 449 BCE)
Unbeknownst
to the Persians, their control of access to the Black Sea threatened the trade
routes of the Greeks who began to plan to undermine Persian rule in Anatolia. In
499 BCE, Athens and Eretria supported the revolt of the Ionians in the region.
Eventually, the revolt ended with Persian victory in 493 BCE. The Persians
wanted to punish the Greeks for their support of the revolt and sent a fleet
and established control over the whole Aegean Sea.
In
490 BCE, Persian forces landed in the coast of Marathon threatening to march
into Athens by land. But the Persian suffered defeat against a successful
defense by the Greeks. Though defeated in Marathon, the whole Empire saw it
only as a minor defeat. The objective of subjugating the Greeks failed to be
seen by Darius who passed away in 486 BCE.
Reign of Xerxes I
Xerxes
I (r. 486 – 465 BCE) succeeded his father Darius I. His reign saw several
rebellions against the monarchy as well as a change in policy of tolerance.
Moreover, he also inherited a punitive war against the Greeks that challenged
Persian might in 490 BCE.
Upon
his ascension, Xerxes received reports of rebellion from Egypt and Babylonia –
the 2 richest regions of the Empire. It took 5 years to crush the rebellion in
both regions and ended with brutal reprisals. At this end, Xerxes abandoned the
titles from the 2 regions. He abolished Babylon as a separate Satrap and merged
it with the Satrap of Assyria. Worst, he also desecrated the venerated god of
the Babylonians Marduk by destroying his palace and melting his idols.
The
reprisals also displayed a changed in the policy tolerance within the Empire.
Xerxes demonstrated further zeal in promoting Zoroastrianism than his father.
His inscription suggested the Persian King aimed to promote Ahura Mazda at the
expense of other religion. His order of demolishing the temple of Marduk
reflected such views.
War Continues
With
the rebellions quelled, 10 years after the Battle of Marathon, Xerxes and the
Persian Empire reignited the conflict with the Greeks. For the campaign, the
Persians exerted tremendous effort and feats to throw an overwhelming might
against the Greeks. They conscripted a quarter of a million men. They enlisted
a multinational naval force composed of about 1,000 ships from different
ethnicities, such as Phoenicians, Egyptians, and even Ionian Greeks. Xerxes
ordered the construction of 2 great bridges in the treacherous and choppy
waters of the Dardanelles. He had a canal near Mt. Athos dug to bypass the
dangerous peninsula where mountain sat.
For
all their effort, the Persian scored victories against the Greeks. In August
480 BCE, the Persians crushed the Greeks in the twin battles of Thermopylae and
Artemisium. By the following month, none stopped their advance to the city of
Athens. Their capture of the city culminated with the burning of it and its
main center – the Acropolis. However, after victories, the hubris of Xerxes led
to a disastrous defeat in the Battle of Salamis.
Decline of the
Persian Empire
Xerxes Reign
Continues
Xerxes
dragged the war on. However, his spending in the war along with other decadence
led to the mismanagement of the imperial coffers. The Persian court saw rise in
opulence and immorality that led to Xerxes’ untimely downfall.
The
Greco-Persian War continued after the disaster in Salamis. With the navy
destroyed and the remaining incapable of defending the King, Xerxes returned to
Persia and left his commanders to continue the war. Soon after, the Persian
military loss the Battle of Plataea which left the commander of the Persian
expeditionary force dead. Persian naval dominance over the Aegean ended with
the Battle of Mycale which later inspire a 2nd Ionian Revolt. The
war dragged on with no sure victor in sight.
After
his return from Greece, Xerxes descended into decadence. He spent for a
building spree by improving palaces and constructing greater halls. His lust
for women became notorious that led to intrigue and infighting within the royal
family and the court as a whole.
Ultimately,
palace intrigue brought Xerxes to his end. In 465 BCE, a favorite courtier
assassinated Xerxes while in his sleep. He became among the first in a series
of assassinations of reigning Kings in the later history of the Persian Empire.
Xerxes’ Successors
After
the reign of Xerxes, his son Artaxerxes (r. 465 – 424 BCE) reigned as King of
Persia. Under his reign the Persians made peace with the Greeks losing the
Ionian provinces as the cost. With the successful cessation of Ionians under
Persian rule, other provinces went into rebellion. Egypt and Bactria became
major centers of descent.
Under
Artaxerxes successors, the imperial court descended into intrigue and
infighting among ambitious officials and courtiers. The empire’s local
administration turned rogue as some Satraps rebelled with impunity calling for
independence from the Empire.
Artaxerxes
III (r. 359 – 338 BCE) successfully salvaged the monarchy and restore some order
within the Empire. However, the core of the Empire remained to rot as intrigue
and power play continued. The Kings’ favorites such Mentor of Rhodes and Bagoas
moved to secure power and influence within the court. His reign ended with his
assassination orchestrated by Bagoas who elevated Prince Arses (r. 338 – 336
BCE) as the new king – a mere puppet for the ambitious favorite of the King.
The
weak Arses made a botch attempt to take power from then Vizier Bagoas. Bagoas
discovered the plot and assassinated Arses. Eventually, he elevated another
Prince who reigned as Darius III (r. 336 – 330 BCE). Darius III fared better
than Arses when he successfully overthrew the Machiavellian Vizier.
Alexander the Great |
His
reign and name, however, failed to resurrect the powerful Persian Empire.
Rather, he became the fiercest enemy and the main antagonist in the story of
the legendary conqueror Alexander the Great. He failed to defeat the Macedonian
general in the fields of Gaugamela despite levying the largest army in the
Empire that number to quarter of a million. After his defeat, one by one, rich
satraps surrendered to Alexander. Ultimately, his reign and the saga of the
Achaemenid Persian Empire ended with his death in 330 BCE.
Summing Up
The
Persian Empire dominated the ancient world for its sheer size and influence in
history. It inspired great conquerors and became a model for administration and
governance. The Empire showed the strength of tolerance, but also showed the
downside of success. Wealth and power corrupted men, especially Kings and
nobles. Eventually hubris brought the descent of the Empire and finally its
downfall.
Bibliography:
Websites:
“Achaemenid
Empire.” In Iran Chamber Society. Accessed on Septmeber 23, 2018. URL: http://www.iranchamber.com/history/achaemenids/achaemenids.php
The
Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. “Achaemenian Dynasty.” In Encyclopedia
Britannica. Accessed on September 23, 2018. URL: https://www.britannica.com/topic/Achaemenian-dynasty
General Reference
“Introduction.”
In The Persian Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia. Edited by Mehrdad Kia. Santa
Barbara, Californi: ABC-CLIO, 2016.
“Achaemenids
(Achaemenians).” In Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East.
Edited by Jamie Stokes. New York, New York: Facts on File, Inc., 2009.
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