Cambyses II and His Controversial Conquest of Egypt

Cambyses II earned his place in the hallmark of Persian history with his push eastwards into North Africa. Under his rule from 530 and 522 BCE, he pushed towards the rich and fertile lands of Egypt.

Cambyses II capturing Pharaoh Psamtik III

Early Life

Cambyses II was the son of King Cyrus II the Great and Cassandane. However, according to Herodotus, Cambyses came from Egypt and Cyrus the Great adopted him. After his father Cyrus captured Babylon, Cambyses took the post of Satrap or governor of the city.

As satrap of the newly conquered territory, Cambyses needed to secure the loyalty of the Babylonian people while his father fought in the east. He followed his father’s tolerance and demonstrated it by joining rituals to Babylonian deities in 538 BCE alongside taking the title of King of Babylon.

When Cyrus went to a campaign beyond the Syr Darya River, Cambyses became co-ruler of the Persian Empire. Ultimately, he became the sole ruler of the Empire when Cyrus the Great fell in battle.

Cyrus II

Reign of Cambyses II 

Cambyses opened his reign by working to expand and defend the territory of the Persian Empire. With his father taking the rich regions of Anatolia and Mesopotamia, Cambyses set his eyes on another wealthy land to add in his dominion – Egypt. However, Herodotus claimed that the war with Egypt began when the Egyptian ruler Amasis sent an imposter posing as an Egyptian princess to be married to Cambyses. When Cambyses discovered the treachery, he mobilized against Egypt.

In 525 BCE, Cambyses’s forces stood at the border of Egypt. Before reaching the Kingdom, however, Amasis passed away, leaving Cambyses II to fight his successor Psamtik III. The campaign went smoothly with successes in diplomacy, intrigue, and intelligence. Cambyses succeeded in convincing the ruler of Samos, Polycrates, who initially supported Egypt, to defect. He also won in getting support of the Greek-born general Phanes who served in the Egyptian army. Finally, his forces successfully obtained supplies and guides from local Arabs during their arduous march over the scorching and agonizing sands of the Sinai Desert.

Despite the local support, Cambyses still met stiff resistance from Psamtik III. The 2 sides fought in the Battle of Pelusium. According to Polyaenus, Cambyses II won the battle by sending in the frontline animals sacred to the Egyptians – cats, dogs, and sheep. Superstitious Egyptians hesitated in attacking and the battle ended in favor of Cambyses. After the victory in Pelusium, major Egyptian cities like Heliopolis and Memphis surrendered to the Persians. Cambyses II captured and sent Psamtik III to Susa where he committed suicide.

Psamtik III surrendering to Cambyses

The fall of Egypt opened Africa to Persian conquest. Cambyses planned invasions of Ethiopia in the south, the Oasis of Amon in the west and Carthage. But the plans failed to materialize due to different circumstances. The invasion of Ethiopia failed due to overstretched supply lines after a quick dash to the south. Next, the invasion of Amon went disastrously when his 50,000 men army became legendary for disappearing in the desert, most probably because of sandstorms. Finally, the planned invasion of Carthage ended when the Phoenicians, who manned the Persian navy, opposed the plan arguing they cannot fight their own kind (Carthage founded by Phoenicians in 814 BCE).

Lost army of Cambyses II, 19th century engraving

With his expansion dead on its track, Cambyses instead consolidated his hold of Egypt. To achieve this, he established 3 garrisons: (1) In Daphnae (Tahpanhes), (2) Memphis, and (3) Elephantine with the help of Jewish mercenaries.

Controversy and Contradiction

Cambyses' rule in Egypt attracted different narratives. Herodotus, the most used source in Persian history, painted a dark and brutal picture. According to him, Cambyses ordered the execution of thousands of children of Egyptian nobles. He also claimed Cambyses insulted the Egyptian people especially the clergy by killing with his own hands the highly revered Apis Bull. Cambyses II vicious image prevailed when the Father of British Egyptology Sir John Gardner Wilkinson stating the following in his work Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians:

…Egypt, when invaded by the Persian monarch, was treated with unusual barbarity.

He continued further writing:

Temples and public buildings were destroyed; tombs were violated, and the bodies burnt; religion was insulted, private property pillaged or destroyed, and everything which could tempt the avarice, or reward the labor, of the spoiler, was seized and appropriated either by the chief or his troops. Gold and silver statues and other objects of value were sent to Persia and it appears that numerous Egyptian captives were also transported to that country.

On the other hand, some sources painted a different picture of Cambyses. showing him as a tolerant and respectful ruler. Udjahorresne, an Egyptian called by some as a collaborator, claimed Cambyses respected local customs and gods, stating:

He made a great prostration before her majesty, as every king has done. He made presents to the almighty goddess of all good things…

He also testified that Cambyses had ordered the cleaning of the Temple of the Egyptian deity Neith of all foreigners, even if it meant him leaving the area. He also returned the revenue that belonged to the temples and celebrated local religious festivals. He also allowed locals, including Udjahorresne, to manage the administration.

Decline and Fall

The later years of Cambyses’ reign turned sour. In 522 BCE, while in Egypt, he received news that in Susa, his brother Bardiya took power. However, as Herodotus and even Darius, claimed that Cambyses had put to death his brother Bardiya during the time he spent in Egypt, thus, an imposter sat in the throne. Darius later testified that a magi named Gaumata pretended to be Bardiya. Bardiya gained local support by promising populist policies of ceasing taxation and conscription for 3 years. Cambyses quickly marched back to Susa. However, halfway to Susa, in Syria, Cambyses passed away, leaving his throne to a pretender and a divided perception of his reign between a tolerant respectful conqueror and a brutally mad despot.

See also:

Cyrus II the Great

Rise and Fall of the Persian Empire

Bibliography:

Websites:

The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. “Cambyses II.” In Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed on September 30, 2018. URL: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Cambyses-II

Ghirshman, Roman et. al. “Ancient Iran.” In Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed on September 30, 2018. URL: https://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-Iran#ref20106 

The inscription of Udjahorresne. Accessed on September 30, 2018. URL: http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/texts/udjahorresne.htm 

General References:

“Cambyses II.” In The Persian Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia. Edited by Mehrdad Kia. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, LLC, 2016.