Death of an Empire - 1911 Chinese Revolution

Despite Wuhan having today a terrible image as ground zero for COVID-19, it had earned a place in Chinese history as the center of a Revolution that marked the end of an era and a dawn of another.

A Century of Humiliation

Today, China once again stood poise to become the world’s superpower – a position it once held and lost during the 19th century. Industrialization gave the western imperial powers the might to bring down to its knees the Middle Kingdom and tested the capability of a millennium-old imperial system. Eventually, their reaction fed up the people and with an unexpected accident, all hell breaks loose to the government in the Forbidden City.

Forbidden City, 1910's

Opium, unequal treaties, and corruption brought the Emperors of China residing in the Forbidden City sitting on the edge of their thrones. China before the Revolution and prior to the 19th century had been prosperous and peaceful except for few occasion of rebellions. But after the reign of Emperor Qianlong, corruption took a deep root in the court that bled the imperial coffers. International developments contributed further to the descent of the Empire. The British worried about losing their silver to China to purchase highly in-demand tea. They then launched a sinister campaign to reverse this trend by drugging and addicting China population to opium. When the Qing Emperors reacted and banned the substance, war broke out and the industrialized military might of the west destroyed the weak Chinese military resulting to unequal treaties that humiliated China. Thus, a cycle of hatred of foreigners that led to the vengeance by the western powers turned and turned throughout until 1900.

A Chinese proverbs said, “When the wind of change blows, some build wall and other windmills.” Apparently many of the powerful figures in the Court abhorred reforms clinging to the illusion of superiority of their age-old imperial traditions. In 1898 a massive reform program sponsored by the Emperor and supported by many intellectuals and moderates had been planned to bring improvements to the situation, but conservative factions within the court led by the powerful Empress Dowager Cixi stood in defiance and brought the Emperor down to a mere figurehead. However, the Boxer Rebellion in 1900 also discredited the Conservatives in the court along with the Empress Dowager. By then the Qing government had loss all its credibility.

Cixi

In an attempt to salvage the remaining authority of the Qing Dynasty, Cixi and the court finally, after all the troubles already done, recognized the need for reform.  Though still mistrustful of outright and radical changes, they wanted to use the reforms to bring the entire Empire back into the central control of the Qing Dynasty. To hail the signal of change, they abolished foot binding in 1902 followed by the abolition of traditional civil service examination in 1905. The government also spearheaded the establishment of modern schools and military. Finally in 1908 they allowed for elections with very limited franchise of members of Provincial and National Assemblies, though these bodies only had advisory roles, convened in 1909 and 1910.

The Qing government’s attempts to become the Enlightened reformist, however, came too little too late. The humiliations that China suffered time and again in the past century already cemented their image as outdated. At the very least, some like Kang Youwei remained hopeful for the establishment of a constitutional monarchy similar to Japan and England. Others however called for the outright overthrow of what many perceived as a foreign rule as the Qing descended from the nomadic Manchu of Northern China whom they saw as inferior back then. Among the proponents of the abolition of the imperial system included Liang Qichao, a political exile for taking part on the 1898 Hundred Days Reform movement. Zou Rong also belonged in the extreme anti-Qing wing with his 1903 tract called The Revolutionary Army. In it, he belittled the Manchus and called up the Chinese people to rise up and “lead the heroes of the Middle Plain to win back our rivers and hills.” Finally, Sun Yat-sen, a doctor who spent most of his time overseas raising funds to fuel anti-Qing movement back in China. In 1904, while in Hawaii and the United States he expanded his network of anti-Manchu organization calling them the United Chinese League or the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance.

Dr. Sun Yat-sen

Calls for a constitution had been also in the trend since 1905. On that year, a constitutional Japan, an Asian country greatly smaller than China but embraced reformation and modernization, struck an epic victory against the western power Russia. The defeated Russians on the other hand also adopted a constitution with their own revolution on that year that curtailed the autocratic powers of the Romanov Czars. Surrounded by constitutional monarchies, China could follow the same path especially when the Qing suffered another blow within.

In 1908, the unpopular Empress Dowager Cixi passed away right after the demise of the Guangxu Emperor. Before her passing, Cixi left the Empire to a mere child name Puyi who became the Xuantong Emperor. With a child at the throne, many saw opportunity for greater change, including having a constitution. Nevertheless, Beijing’s desire to reassert control and authority remained paramount objective.

Fragmented China

With the turbulent century of humiliation, China’s Qing government weakened its authority and control. The numerous rebellions revealed this and drained the resources of the dynasty that hampered its desire to pacify the country. By the dawn of the 20th century, provincial governors began to rule their domains as if their own kingdoms and units within the army became private forces loyal to their own commanders. Local elites already viewed with suspicion policies from Beijing with the argument between a centralized and a decentralized government raged.

Hankou (Hankow)

In 1911, Qing authorities wanted to take over a part of the Hukwang Railway that connected Beijing to Central China. Local investors of the railway in Sichuan opposed government plans to take over the line. Due to this incident, tensions rose along the region. Then on October 9, 1911, an accident sparked a Revolution.

On October 9, 1911, a bomb went off in the Russian-controlled sector of the treaty port of Hankow. The blast turned out to be a result of a faulty assembly of a bomb by several soldiers from the New Army stationed in Wuchang. It did not only injured several plotters but revealed a clandestine plot to start a revolution. Thus, the surviving soldiers found themselves behind bars. On the other hand, plotters within the whole military garrison in the city feared a purge and in a surge of fear, they prematurely began a mutiny on October 10, 1911. They immediately captured the mint and the strategically and logistically vital arsenal securing supplies of weapons for a greater uprising. As the uprising went in motion, the mutineers sought the leadership of Li Yuanhong who agreed to provide needed direction and organization for the movement. Organized and well supplied, the mutineers advanced beyond Wuchang and gained support from neighboring cities. On October 11, Hanyang fell followed by Hankou on October 12. As a result of this victories, the mutineers had captured the tri-city (now called Wuhan) that controlled the central regions and the Yangzi River.

Yuan Shikai

Meanwhile, back in Beijing, the regency council faced turmoil and confusion. In such conditions, the court appealed to General Yuan Shikai, a respected and skillful military leader, to come out of retirement and lead the army into battle against the revolt. However, Yuan frustrated the court by refusing to heed the call of duty citing his foot ailment as an excuse. Moreover, he saw it as retribution for his force retirement back in 1908. He also already understood the imminent fall of the Dynasty and wanted to get most out of it. He waited until he received much more favorable terms and this came with the growing of the revolt in Central China.

Nanjing Road during the Revolution

From Wuchang, the revolt grew to become a revolution – the Xinhai Revolution. Civilians enlisted as soldiers swelling the ranks of revolutionary forces. Men like Mao Zedong, the future founder of the People’s Republic of China, Zhu De, the future founder of the People’s Liberation Army and Chiang Kai-Shek, later leader of the Nationalist Party (Guomintang) joined the fight against the Manchu. Soon, provincial assemblies of neighboring provinces declared their break from Beijing. Hunan, Shaanxi, Yunnan, Shanxi, and Jiangxi led this move.

Mao Zedong, 1913

Sun Yat-sen’s Chinese Revolutionary Alliance’s extensive network contributed to quick spread of flames of revolutionary fervor. The Alliance’s infiltration of the New Army and various social organization allowed the mobilization of population and sectors towards the removal of the Qing. Nevertheless, the vast expanse of China remained out of the Alliance’s influence. Provincial elite and military commanders in many areas took power. Moreover, despite the initial success of the Alliance’s infiltration of the New Army, majority of military power remained outside their control which became a weakness for Sun Yat-sen’s claim to the Presidency.

With most of Central and Southern China in revolution, Beijing grew further desperate to enlist the help of Yuan Shikai. Yuan reluctantly agreed only after the Court agreed to several conditions. These included the enactment of a constitution, appointment of a Prime Minister (with Yuan Shikai as the obvious candidate), review of foreign treaties, abolition of the Court’s power to carry out order of execution, and finally grant of amnesty to political enemies including those in exile. After the Court agreed to the terms, Yuan’s forces mobilized against the revolution and recaptured Hankow and Hanyang in November 1911. By the 11th of the same month, Yuan Shikai secured the post of Prime Minister.

As Yuan take his post as Prime Minister, in Nanjing a provisional government convened and elected Dr. Sun Yat-sen as President while Li Yuanhong became Vice President. In 1897, Dr. Sun Yat-sen formulated his famous San Min Chu I or the Three Principles of the People: Nationalism, Socialism, and Democracy. By returning to China, he hoped to turn this principles into action. He arrived in Nanjing on December 25, 1911, coming from Europe to secure the recognition of the new government by the great powers. Finally, on January 1, 1912, they founded the Republic of China.

Beiyang Army on the way to Hankou, 1911

End Game

As the revolutionaries and the people celebrated the establishment of the Republic of China, behind closed doors, negotiations between the Provisional Government and Yuan Shikai had been underway. The negotiations aimed to bring a close to the internal strife and to bring peace to China. Eventually, the negotiations bear fruit. The deal called for the abdication of the Emperor, transfer of power to the provisional government, the enactment of a provisional constitution, formation of a republican government, and finally the appointment of Yuan Shikai as the republic’s new President.

Puyi, 1908

On February 12, 1912, the Xuantong Emperor, the young Puyi, abdicated his throne. The act effectively closed the curtain for the stage of the Qing Dynasty and ultimately the whole of imperial system. Puyi kept his title and the right to stay in the Forbidden City until his expulsion from the grand majestic palace in 1924.

On the other hand, the issue of Presidency and leadership of the government did not bring too much complication or crisis. Dr. Sun Yat-sen humbled himself to Yuan Shikai. He recognized the greater military capacity of Premier and wanted to prevent the country from descending into a long civil war. Despite not being a President, he remained a towering political figure in China.

In March 1912, a provisional constitution took effect and a parliament convened in Nanjing. Among the early business of the parliament included the decision on the location of the capital. Dr. Sun wanted to keep the capital in Nanjing because he viewed Beijing as the capital of foreign rulers and usurpers. He looked into Nanjing as the historical capital of the nation as it already served as a center of the Empire for several dynasties, not to mention it indeed stood at the center of the China. Yuan, however, looked into a political perspective, most of his allies, influence and power laid with Beijing. Moreover most government function existed in the city that can be retained.

Once again Yuan won the argument and on April 1912, Beijing continued to be the capital and the Republic of China began to function.

Aftermath

Many Chinese looked forward with hope the foundation of the Republic. The Republic faced a lot of challenges both domestic and overseas. Centuries of corruption and mismanagement scarred the nation deeply. Yuan’s ambitions failed to resolve this and as matter of fact continued China’s descent. In overseas affairs, he failed to stand up against the increasing encroachment of Japan. His authoritarian rule and attempts to re-instate himself as Emperor sparked unrest and rebellions. This gave rise to powerful and popular generals who took control of provinces. By Yuan’s death in 1916, the country faced the era of the warlords. While the promises of the Revolution turned empty and false, many youth and intellectual turned to radicalism that grew further continued the political turmoil until 1949.

Summing Up

The Chinese Revolution broke the chains that bonded the Chinese people to the imperial system. With a small accident, discontent burst into open revolution that finally saw an end to the dying Qing Dynasty. Though the Chinese people broke their chains, they failed to be free from their prison. Ages of autocratic rule made it difficult to transform a society into a democracy, worse high ambitions of becoming new Emperors remained alive such as the case of Yuan Shikai who had the audacity to establish a new dynasty. The 1911 Revolution may have been a landmark for ending the Qing Dynasty, but it failed to deliver the Chinese people out of the decline they had experienced already for about a century.

See also:
Causes of the Xinhai Revolution

Yuan Shikai

Bibliography:

Books:

Fairbank, John King. China: A New History. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2006.

Keay, John. A History of China. New York, New York: Basic Books, 2009.

Spence, Jonathan. The Gate of Heavenly Peace. New York, New York: Viking Press, 1981.

Wright, David Curtis. The History of China. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood Press, 2011.

Websites:

Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. “Chinese Revolution.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed on May 12, 2020. URL: https://www.britannica.com/event/Chinese-Revolution-1911-1912