Who was the Empress Dowager Cixi? - Part 1

Documentaries, books, and articles have depicted the Empress Dowager Cixi as the malignant force filled with vanity and naivety that held China back from reforming. A powerful concubine who rose up as the most powerful figure in China, so much so she appointed 2 of China’s Emperor.

Early Life

The woman to become one of China’s most controversial figure came from Taiyuan, Shanxi Province born on November 29, 1835. Her birth name unknown, but she belonged to the Manchu clan of Yehe Nara. Her Manchu heritage spared her from the notorious practice of foot bidding to which feet of young girls underwent immense binding to remain small and resemble a lotus – a sign of beauty back then. Her father, the official Huizhen educated her and groomed her for her future as a concubine to the imperial court.

Indeed, by the age of 16, she went to the Forbidden City to be presented as one of the candidates to become the Empress of the new Xianfeng Emperor or at least a concubine. She said to have possessed great beauty, but the mother of the Emperor in charge of the selection appointed her instead as a low-ranking concubine.

Xianfeng Emperor

It took years before Yehe Nara became a prominent figure in court. In 1854, she, at last, found the favor of the Emperor ultimately leading to her pregnancy. In 1856, she gave birth to Zaichun who later became the Tongzhi Emperor. Her delivery of the heir to the dragon throne elevated her further in court becoming known as Concubine Yi then Consort Yi. She also began to be an observer of the workings of the government. Stories even indicated that she assisted the ailing Xianfeng Emperor in organizing memorials and edicts. She started to cultivate alliances with the Emperor’s brother Prince Gong as well as the Empress and official guardian of her son Empress Zhen. She also witnessed the mishandling of the Opium War by officials in the court.

In 1860, as an Anglo-French force marched in Beijing, the Imperial family fled to Jehol (modern-day Chengde) in Manchuria citing the traditional hunt of the Emperors’ in the area as the reason for the departure. As the imperial family went to the hunting lodges, the Anglo-French forces occupied Beijing before proceeding to the Imperial Summer Palace where they rescued the western diplomats held captive. As the diplomat broke free from their captivity, the western forces pillaged, looted, and ultimately razed to the ground the magnificent Summer Palace. This act of terror to a valuable imperial abode brought a realization of China’s weakness.

Tongzhi Emperor

While the Summer Palace lose its value, the Xianfeng Emperor also lose his will to live passing away in 1861. His death marked the accession of Consort Yi’s 5-year old son to the throne. Zaichun ascended to the throne as the Qixiang Emperor later changed to Tongzhi.

Tongzhi Emperor Regency

While Zaichun ascended to the throne as Emperor, a regency council formed to rule the country until the child Emperor reached adulthood. But Consort Yi viewed the regency council with mistrust and made the move that propelled her to the political limelight of China. The ascension of her son became her own ascension to power.

Prince Gong

8 Princes formed Tongzhi’s regency council. However, Yi witnessed how the designated Princes managed China into its worst humiliating defeat yet and mistrusted them to advice and rule the country on his son’s behalf. She plotted with the sense of her duty to preserve the Empire. She included in her plot the late Empress Zhen as well as Prince Gong, Prince Chun, and Grand Councilor Wen-xiang. Such a powerful force staged the coup that led to the immediate downfall of the regency council. 5 went to prison while 1 faced execution and 2 forced to commit suicide. Consort Yi and Empress Zhen celebrated their victory by changing their names. Empress Zhen took Ci’an meaning kindly and serene while Consort Yi took her legendary name Cixi or kindly and joyous. Cixi and Ci’an thus began to rule the Empire behind a silk screen placed behind the throne, becoming the voice of the Emperor. The 2 widows and Prince Gong formed a powerful triumvirate regency that presided over the so-called Qing Restoration.

Empress Dowager Ci'an

The Qing Restoration witnessed a period of stability and reform amidst growing chaos. It saw the defeat of major rebellions firstly the Taiping Rebellion in 1864 followed by the Nian Rebellion in 1868. Series of reforms aimed at modernizing China began. In 1861, under the lead of Prince Gong the Zongli Yamen which serves as the foreign affairs ministry founded. The regency also supported the “Self-Strengthening” Campaign promoted by distinguished officials who contributed to the quelling of the major rebellions aforementioned. This included Zeng Guofan and his apprentice Li Hongzhang, the so-called Yellow Bismarck. Under the campaign which greatly focused in the modernization of the military, Chinese soldiers began to learn western weaponry and technology. By the 1870’s new arsenals established produced modern weapons and the navy also purchased modern warships to match the west in some ways.

The regency also saw a rise in interest in western learning. In 1862, a school for foreign languages began to produce translators who worked in translating various western text making them available to more intellectuals. In 1872, Yung Wing led several Chinese students overseas to study.

In the government, besides the founding of the Zongli Yamen, the regency established a modern customs service with the assistance of the British Robert Hart.

Despite the hopeful sound of the reforms, in reality, it lacked luster. It failed to address the fundamental weakness of the Qing Empire. As John Fairbank wrote that the government lowered land taxes but did nothing to address the issue of rising rent and curb abuses of the landlords. He also added that Cixi and the other members of the regency “conscientiously reviving the past instead of facing China’s new future creatively.” Industrialization also failed to pick up the pace due to massive opposition from locals and officials citing disruption in feng shui. Beyond cultural conflicts, corruption, nepotism, and red tape plagued the development of industries. Though Cixi and the other members of the regency did not oppose reforms completely, their energies for it aimed at wrong objectives.

In 1873, the regency for the Tongzhi Emperor ended. His reign, however, ended soon afterward. In 1875, not yet 20, and due to his ventures outside of the Forbidden City to indulge in great decadence in whoring, drinking, and smoking opium, he passed away because of syphilis. He left the dragon throne without an heir resulting in a dynastic crisis. 

Prevailing stories suggested he left the Empress Alute pregnant and many in court wanted to wait for the Empress to give birth before designating the new Emperor – a dangerous suggestion considering the threat of western intervention or domestic rebellions. The story went on that because of this danger, Cixi, as the powerful Empress Dowager, decided to install his 5-year old nephew Zaitian, the son of Cixi’s sister and the half-brother of the late Xianfeng Emperor, as the new son of heaven, the Guangxu Emperor. The act garnered controversy as the Empress Alute suddenly passed away months after the death of the Tongzhi Emperor. Many later pointed Cixi as the culprit, but no evidence came to light. Moreover, in a court filled with intrigue and factionalism, many factions might have something to do with the Empress’s death.

The Guangxu Emperor came to the throne, but as an infant, the Empress Dowager Cixi and Ci’an once again held the reins of power. Cixi held the title of regent until 1889 and once again in 1898 while making her mark as a controversial leader.

See also:
Empress Dowager Cixi - Part 2

Bibliography:

Book:

Fairbank, John King. China: A New History. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2006.

Websites:

"Cixi (1835–1908)." Women in World History: A Biographical Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia.com. (July 14, 2020). https://www.encyclopedia.com/women/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/cixi-1835-1908

Casals, Josep Maria. “Cixi, the Controversial Concubine who became Queen, Led China into the Modern Age.” National Geographic. Accessed on August 1, 2020. URL: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/magazine/2016/11-12/profiles-china-empress-dowager-cixi-emperor-guangxu/

Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. “Cixi.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed on May 26, 2020. URL: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Cixi 

Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. “Gong Qinwang.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed on May 26, 2020. URL: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Gong-Qinwang

Fiegl, Amanda. “Cixi: The Woman Behind the Throne.” Smithsonianmag.com. Accessed August 1, 2020. URL: https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/cixi-the-woman-behind-the-throne-22312071/

Mitra, Anusuya. “10 Facts on Cixi — The Empress Who Ushered in Modern China.” China Highlights. Accessed on August 1, 2020. URL: https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/china-history/empress-cixi-facts.htm