What Happened during the Second Afghan-War?

The First Anglo-Afghan War witnessed the extent of British aggression and Afghan resolve to maintain its independence. British India, however, failed to contemplate their first mistake and went to repeat it once again with the Second Anglo-Afghan War.

Attack on Khandahar

The Origins of the War

Events in Europe reverberated to Afghanistan. From imperial rivalries to the election of a Prime Minister in England, these events created the backdrop from which the Second Anglo-Afghan War commenced. And with a single coincidental death, the war began.

The Great Game remained a factor in the Second Anglo-Afghan War. Russian and British imperial rivalry maintained its heat. The 1860’s saw Russian advances in Central Asia with Czarist forces adding to its sphere of influence the Emirate of Bukhara and the Khanate of Khiva reaching as far as the Amu Darya River – Afghanistan’s northern frontier. This alerted the British who began to provide assistance to the new Emir of Afghanistan Sher Ali. On the other hand, Emir Sher Ali shared British worries and met with India Viceroy Lord Mayo in Ambala seeking assurances over Afghanistan’s defense and recognition of his son as heir Abdullah Jan. Despite Lord Mayo sympathies to the Afghans, no guarantees had been made.

The Russo-Turkish War ran from 1877 and 1878 saw a diplomatic confrontation between the British and the Russians. The Russians intended to expand into the Balkans at the expense of the decaying Ottoman Empire. This too alerted the British who came into the rescue of the Turks. To resolve the matter, a peace congress convened in Berlin hosted by Germany’s iron chancellor Otto von Bismarck. Though a peace summit convened, Russia made preparations for conflict and the new Russian commander and Governor-General of Central Asia Konstantin Petrovich von Kaufmann thought opening a second in the east by attacking India, the jewel of the British Empire, would force the British to fight in 2 fronts. He needed, however, to gain the support of Afghanistan for the plan to succeed and to this end he sent a delegation on 250 men led by a General Stolietoff (Stolietov) to Kabul to negotiate with Emir Sher Ali. On July 22, 1878, despite Sher Ali’s objection to the entry of the embassy, Stolietoff forced their way into Kabul and set an audience with the Emir. They offered military alliance including the stationing of Russian troops in Afghanistan alongside the installation of telegraph and construction of road to cross the country into India. The arrangement tempted Sher Ali into compliance, but before any formal agreement signed, the delegation left at earnest as news of a peace settlement in Berlin reached Kabul.

Benjamin Disraeli

The Government of British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli led the charge for British imperial expansion since the start of his administration in 1674. They saw the protection of British imperial interest through the so-called Forward Policy. Under the Disraeli government, Anglo-Afghan relation changed its course from friendly to hostility. And this change in tone fell under the responsibility of the Viceroy of British India appointed by the Disraeli government in 1876 Robert Bulwer-Lytton, the later Earl of Lytton.

Lord Lytton received the news about the Russian embassy in Kabul on August 13, 1878. The news infuriated him as the British had been seeking approval for an embassy since the 1830’s. Though a British embassy already existed in Kabul, an Indian Muslim manned the post against the true desires of Delhi for a European to hold the position. Lytton wasted no time in demanding Sher Ali  the gestures towards the Russians to the British as well unbeknownst to him that the Solientoff mission forced themselves to Kabul.

Sher Ali

An exchange of message between Sher Ali and Lord Lytton ensued. On August 18, 1878, Sher Ali’s heir Abdullah Jan passed away and he underwent the traditional long mourning period. He then sought patience with the Viceroy for the reply regarding the demands. His request for patience, however, went into the ears of an impatient imperialist bent on implementing the Forward Policy of London. On September 12, 1878, Afghan forces in Ali Musjid near the Khyber passed surprised by a British diplomatic mission led by Sir Neville Chamberlain escorted by a British unit under Major Louis Cavagnari. Afghan General Faiz Muhammad refused entry to the embassy, a stand which further infuriated Lytton who saw the act as an “insult” and demanded an apology. The Emirate’s letters, however, failed to satisfy Lytton. On November 1878 Lytton authorized the mobilization of the British Indian army for war.

British Invasion

The 1878 British invasion of Afghanistan went similar to the invasion in 1839 – smooth and easy. The British threw its whole imperial might to the fight driving the Afghans into hopelessness. Finally it obtain an agreement that brought humiliation to the pride of the Afghan people.

Dignity & Impudence by John Burke - showing British forces with their weapons and pack animals

British forces invaded Afghanistan on November 21, 1878 in 3 fronts: Bolan Pass, Khyber Pass, and Kurram Valley. They met little resistance and on December 2, 1879, they defeated the army of Emir Sher Ali in Peiwar Kotal forcing the Afghan leader to retreat in despair.

Contributing to the success of British invasion laid in its use of latest technology. Railroad and telegraphs allowed faster mobilization of troops and communication between several units which allowed synchronized and well-coordinated attacks. British troops used the latest weaponry of the industrial age including faster and accurate breech-loading Martini-Henry and Snider Rifles in addition to the devastating Gatling gun. Assistance from Sikh recruits in the British Indian Army allowed them to navigate easier the treacherous mountainous terrains of Afghanistan.

Contributing to the failure of the Afghan, on the other hand, laid in its inadequate technology and organization. Unlike the British, Afghans still used the inaccurate muzzle-loading jezail guns. Despite having a professional army, most of the Afghan military still relied on tribal forces that tended to be disorganize, rowdy, and disloyal. This lack of unity and discipline as well as the absence of latest weaponry contributed to the defeat of Afghanistan in the field.

Yaqub Khan

Sher Ali then sought Russian assistance after seeing his military decimated. He contacted Russian Governor-General Kaufman for military intervention, but the General rejected stating problems in logistics and deepening winter. Desperate, he then placed his son Yaqub Khan as regent before leaving for St. Petersburg to plead with the Czar himself. He, however, went to a Russia uninterested in conflict with Britain and his passage to the vast European empire denied in the border. He then returned to Mazar-i-sharif defeated ultimately succumbing to death on February 21, 1879. His son Yaqub succeeded as Emir and, seeing the desperate situation, sued for peace with the British resulting to the Treaty of Gandamak.

The Treaty of Gandamak marked the beginning of Afghanistan as an addition to Great Britain’s vast sphere of influence. Signed on May 26, 1879, the Treaty returned to Afghanistan the major cities of Jalalabad and Kandahar, but gave British India Kurram, Pishin, and Sibi. It allowed a British mission to permanently reside in Kabul, while it paid the Afghan Emir a stipend of £60,000. Most importantly, it surrendered Afghanistan’s foreign affairs to Great Britain. Afghan’s condemned the agreement and Yaqub’s reputation plummeted as they viewed his peace a sellout.

Fragile Peace

British and Afghan representatives in Gandamak, Yaqub Khan seated in the middle and Louis Cavagnari in his left

The signing of the Treaty of Gandamak did not marked the end of the war, but only the 1st phase of it. The situation during the First Anglo-Afghan War returned that haunted the British army. Eventually, this prompted an aversion towards Afghanistan that earned her the nick name – the graveyard of Empires.

Sir Louis Cavagnari arrived in Kabul on July 1879 to assume his position as British ambassador to Kabul. He resided in the city’s imposing historical fortress of Balar Hisar guarded by British as well as locally recruited Afghans. For several months, Cavagnari met with the Emir until September 1879. The mission faced issues on salaries of local Afghan recruits causing discontent and finally anger. On September 3, 1879, the Afghan recruits joined by a large Afghan mob stormed Balar Hisar and lynched Sir Louis Cavagnari along with his 75 staff members and guards.

A punitive expedition then set out for Kabul led by General Frederick Roberts. From Kurram Valley they marched north into Kabul arriving in the city on October 12, 1879. They retook Balar Hisar and forced the abdication of Yaqub Khan who despite his efforts failed to stop the killing of Cavagnari. Balar Hisar saw its destruction on October 16, 1879 after an explosion inside the fort killed several soldiers. The British then camped in a cantonment just outside Kabul.

Frederick Roberts

The citizens of Kabul, on the other hand, met a reprisal from the notorious Frederick Roberts. They suffered from the vengeance of the British over the death of Cavagnari. Their suffering came from General Roberts who his colleagues knew as a bloodthirsty and absolutely cruel man. Many Afghans faced arrest while many faced execution, mostly however, innocent. 87 met such demise on the hands of Roberts.

Resistance against the British occupation erupted across the country. Various rebel leaders emerged such as Ghilzai mullah Mir Din Muhammad aka Mushk-I-Alam or Perfume of the Universe who called for a jihad against the British in his aggressive speeches. Another emerged in Wardak, just south of Kabul, under the leadership of Mohammad Jan. A huge tribal army or a Lashkar of 40,000 converged with the intention of retaking Kabul. The city fell and its foreign sections suffered from looting and pillaging while the British remained in the cantonment led by Roberts prepared, well-armed, and well-fortified. Mohammad Jan attempted to negotiate a peaceful British withdrawal, but fears of another massacre just as in the First Anglo-Afghan War lingered and the British rejected the offer. On December 1879, the Afghans and the British fought in the Battle of Sherpur. Afghan spirit, despite its ferocity, failed to crash the British and 3,000 of those spirits perished

The British then planned on their exit from Afghanistan. Just like in the first, the situations turned once again sour as the whole country launched a jihad with guerilla tactics that placed British forces in a quagmire. They then sought a new Emir that could rely upon and could allow a safer and less risky exit of British forces in Afghanistan. They found such in the personage of Abdur Rahman Khan, nephew of the late Sher Ali who lived in Tashkent as an exile after his family suffered a defeat in the cut throat politics of Kabul. Despite being a Russian guest, the British relied upon him and with arms from the Russian, their candidate gained the support of the Northern tribes. On July 20, 1880 in Charikar, north of Kabul, he declared himself as Emir. Despite his declaration, the country already descended into anarchy with several Barakzai princes on the loose with their army. One such army inflicted a damage on British prestige of epic proportion in Afghan lore – the Battle of Maiwand.

Maiwand: Saving the Guns by Richard Caton Woodville

The Battle of Maiwand slapped the British once again with terrible hit in its imperial pride. In July 1880, Barakzai prince Muhammad Ayub Khan declared himself Emir in his base of Herat. He minted his own coins and his name recited in prayers invoking legitimacy of his reign in Islamic tradition. He then marched his forces east and on July 27, 1880 he faced the British forces under General George Burrows in Maiwand. Afghan forces attacked and killed 1,000 out of 2,600 British soldiers, a casualty rate of about 38%. During the battle, the legend of the heroine Malalai born with a story of a woman waving her veil as a war banner inspired the dedication of the Afghans both men and women in fighting for their freedom from foreign yolk. The Battle became legendary in Afghan military history and Ayub Khan a national hero. Despite the legend born from Maiwand, the battle in reality seen by Ayub as a pyrrhic victory with their side suffering a massive 2,500 casualties. They also push the British into retreat to Kandahar and forced General Roberts to march his forces from Kabul to aid the besieged city. The Afghan and the British then fought in the last battle of the war the Battle of Kandahar where the British won and soundly defeated Ayub Khan.

Afghan Victors of Battle of Maiwand

British Withdrawal

British maintained the terms of the Treaty of Gandamak, but with several additional guarantees to Abdur Rahman.  Several factors played a key role in the withdrawal that cemented the war’s end.

Economic, military, and public opinion drove British decision to leave Afghanistan. Like in the first, the British Indian army suffered from exposure to weather and disease and surprise attacks from hostile population. They lose 10,000 soldiers and about 100,000 packed animals. They faced budgetary problems when the estimated £ 5 million war cost of the war ballooned to over £19.5 million exclusive of the 60,000 per month payment to the Emir of Afghanistan. Moreover, public opinion opposed the conflict. Even before the war began, the plan already lacked enthusiasm from officials both in London and Delhi. Lytton faced most of the backlash. The war also contributed to the decline of Disraeli’s government which suffered an electoral defeat in 1880 and saw the victory of the liberal William Gladstone.

The British finally left in 1881 with last units leaving Kandahar in April. Moreover, they also abandoned plans to set up a permanent mission in Kabul under the condition that Afghanistan reject any relations with other countries. They also guaranteed nonintervention in Afghan politics. Despite the guarantees, however, Afghanistan remained nominally a part of the British sphere of influence due to the Treaty of Gandamak. The situation remained until the outbreak of the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919.

Summing Up

The Second Anglo-Afghan War depicted Afghanistan’s spirit of independence against foreign aggression despite all the disadvantages. The factors that led to the war had been coincidental as well as out of Emir Sher Ali’s will. Sher Ali did not contribute to the growing rivalry between the British and the Russian nor contributed to the sudden death of his heir whom he fought for recognition. He only failed to stop a Russian embassy arriving in Kabul that led to aggressive British Viceroy to declare war.

Afghanistan stood against an aggressive Viceroy. Its military faced defeat at the hands of the most powerful military in the world at that time and forced to sign an unequal treaty that added her to the list of sphere of influences. Despite the treaty and advance technology and better organization and discipline of the British Indian Army, Afghans resisted with ferocity and bravery. The legend of Maiwand and Malalai attest to this fiery spirit of independence. Nevertheless, the spirit of independence lacked unity as the Afghans remained tribal and traditional. Tribal divide failed Afghanistan to form an organize defense at the start of the war and failed once more during the capture of Kabul which General Roberts exploited for his victories. Ultimately, the war revealed the character of Afghans that to carry over for centuries and remained throughout its modern history.

The war led to Afghanistan succumbing to the British as a part of sphere of influence, but it also cemented Afghanistan as a country difficult if not impossible to occupy and subjugate. The British had to learn this lesson twice and in a difficult manner. After the Second Anglo-Afghan War, Great Britain continued to force Afghanistan sign unequal agreements, but they never dared again to invade the country. The Third Anglo-Afghan War only erupted in 1919 and this time due to Afghan opportunistic aggression. The Second Anglo-Afghan War effectively halted British imperial aggression to Central Asia.

See also:

First Anglo-Afghan War

Barakzai Dynasty

Bibliography:

Books:

Appleton, Lewis. The Wars of Queen Victoria’s Reign: From 1837 to 1887. London: British and Foreign Arbitration Association, 1887.

Rasanayagam, Angelo. Afghanistan: A Modern History. New York, New York: IB Tauris, 2005.

Wahab, Shaista & Barry Youngerman. A Brief History of Afghanistan. New York, New York: Facts On File, Inc., 2010.

General Reference:

“Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878-1881).” Historical Dictionary of Afghanistan. Edited by Ludwig Adamec. Lanhamm Maryland: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2003.

Mikaberidze, Alexander. "Anglo-Afghan War (1878 – 1880)." Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2011.