Casimir III received the epithet “the Great” being a rare honor to be given among the Polish Kings. He earned such a reputation for his role as a talented diplomat, unifier, and administrator that changed the Kingdom of Poland in his 30-year reign from a divided weak country to potential great power.
Early Years
Born in 1310 in Krakow, Casimir was the 3rd son of the King of Poland, Wladyslaw I, and Queen Jadwiga. Only scanty information had been known on the childhood days of the future Polish ruler. But his education fell to the responsibility of Jaroslaw, the future Archbishop of Gniezno and head of the Catholic Church in Poland. Casimir's older brother passed away young and in 1312, his other brother, Wladyslaw, also passed away making him heir of the Kingdom being forged by his father.
In 1320, Casimir’s father King Wladyslaw crowned as King of Poland marked the revival of the Polish Kingdom under the Piast Dynasty. Since 1138, the Kingdom of Poland descended into fragmentation as several principalities and duchies partition the country. This made the Poles vulnerable to the influence and absorption by powerful states surrounding their lands, namely: the Kingdom of Bohemia, the Kingdom of Hungary, the growing Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and finally the dreaded Teutonic Knights. Wladyslaw campaigned in the early 14th century to reunite the divided Polish people. Casimir accompanied his father campaigning and witnessing the glories and horrors of war. This made him wary and careful of using military force.
In 1333, King Wladyslaw I passed away leaving Casimir to inherit the Crown. Casimir III inherited a powder keg for a Kingdom surrounded by more powerful aggressive neighbors and a newly fragile united Kingdom with regionalism threatening to undo Wladyslaw’s work. Casimir’s reign then focused on healing the wounds of division and stabilize Poland’s situation on the international stage.
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| Casimir III by Jan Matejko |
Domestic Reforms
Casimir’s reign followed the so-called slogan “One King, One Law, One Currency.” It embodied the monarch’s intentions to strengthen the unity between the different provinces of the Kingdom. Through his benevolent rule, he grew to become a beloved King from top to bottom of the social strata becoming even known as the “Peasant King.”
In administration, he shifted power within the duchies from the hands of Voyevoda or the Kasztelan, appointed by the local Lords during the time of Feudal Fragmentation, to the Starosta, appointees of the monarch, a practice that traced back to Kingdom Wenceslas II (r. 1300 – 1305). A Starosta handled the affairs in judicial, finance, and military affairs. They stayed in office by the grace of the monarch. The measure came as Casimir’s efforts to centralize the government and cement the country's unification under the Piast Kings.
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| Wenceslaus II |
Besides administration, Casimir also delved into creating a standard codified law for all of his subjects. In 1347, a congress of the Kingdom’s nobility, clergy, and notables convened to work on the Kingdom’s new code of law. The work ended in 1362 with the completion of 2 codes of law, 1 for Greater Poland which became known as the Statutes of Piotrkow and the other for Lesser Poland called the Statues of Wislica. Though Casimir failed to create a unified single code of law, the statutes came as progress for the Polish legal system.
Despite the lack of representation of the peasantry in the proceedings, the code showed leniency towards them and King Casimir himself ensured to ease their sufferings, thus becoming known as Peasant King. For a professional and independent judgment of law, Casimir also founded special courts in Krakow.
To produce high-quality lawyers as well as intellectuals, Casimir III established the Krakow University in 1364, one of the oldest in Europe and 2nd to be established in Central and Eastern Europe following the University of Prague. Modeled after the University of Bologna, the University’s charter gained the approval of Pope Urban V on May 12, 1364. It hosted 1 chair for the Liberal Arts, 2 for Medicine, 3 for Canon Law, and 6 for Roman Law. Casimir financed the institution with revenues from the salt monopoly quarterly and had his Royal Chancellor Janusz Suchwilk to supervise the new educational institution. The university, however, faced challenges in finding competent professors and failed to be fully utilized during his reign. After his death, in 1670, the University ceased to exist. Only during the reign of Queen Jadwiga and King Wladyslaw II that the University found a firm footing existing even to this day as the Jagiellonian University of Krakow.
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| The founding of the University, painted by Jan Matejko |
Economically, Casimir also made his mark in Poland’s coinage. Hoping to stimulate trade he began to issue a thick silver coin known as the Krakow Grosz. Trade, thus, flourished along the ancient trade route known as the Amber Road. Over this route, Hungarian copper moved north while cloth and salted herring went south. From the east furs, honey, cattle, and slaves moved west while in the other direction brought textile and implements. Moreover, Casimir promoted the development of the salt industry in Wieliczka as well as the mining industry, specifically for lead and tin in Olkusz and iron in Kielce.
Finally, besides making Poland stronger, building Poland in stone meant also literally. Casimir ordered the construction of numerous brick and stone structures. In Krakow, he ordered the expansion of the Wawel Castle adding a Gothic stone structure to serve as his residence. He also supported the reconstruction of the Wawel Cathedral, also in the Gothic style, and the rebuilding of the St. Mary’s Basilica from 1355 to 1365. He sponsored the reconstruction of the Cathedral of Gniezno that burned down by the Teutonic Knights in 1331. Across the country, the King also ordered or supported the construction or upgrade of about 50 castles meant for defense, including the Przemysl Castle, Bedzin Castle, Bobolice Castle, and Chęciny Castle.
Casimir also approved the establishment of about 70 towns and cities under the Magdeburg Law that gave them autonomy. Kazimierz, a town established in honor of Casimir III, near Krakow served as an example. It became well known later as a Jewish enclave.
The rise in the Jewish population of Poland began with Casimir’s relaxation in the immigration of German as well as Jewish settlers. According to legend, Casimir fell in love with a Jewish woman named Esther that convinced him to allow Jews to come into the country. This tale, however, proved to be mythical. Across Europe, Jews suffered persecution especially during the height of the Black Death when they became scapegoats and scorned greatly. Against this tide, Casimir welcomed them most likely for their skills and wealth. The immigration openness made Poland the home of the largest population of Jews in Europe until World War II.
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| Casimir the Great and the Jews, by Wojciech Gerson |
Casimir III the Great’s reign saw great progressive policies. He aimed to unify his country under one law and currency. In some fields, he succeeded, but in others, he had mixed outcomes. He also made his reign memorable through the stone by erecting structures that lasted even to this day providing a window to life and culture during the Middle Ages. Casimir’s epithet, however, came not just for his internal policies, but also for his talent as a diplomat.
Foreign Policy
Casimir had in his hands a volatile geopolitical situation. His newly united Poland came under threat from its powerful neighbors: the Kingdom of Hungary, Kingdom of Bohemia, Teutonic Knights, and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Practicing Realpolitik by recognizing his countries weakness compared to their neighbors, Casimir avoided military conflict influenced by his youth and chose to diplomatically maneuver Poland from a mediocre state to a well-respected and regarded Kingdom in just 3 decades.
Poland grew closer to Hungary in the 1320s cemented by the marriage of Casimir’s sister Elizabeth to King Charles Robert of Hungary. The marriage benefited both Casimir and Charles Robert who also faced a tremendous challenge from the Holy Roman Empires and Bohemia. Elizabeth in turn, became a de facto ambassador of Hungary to Krakow, becoming an influential figure in Polish foreign policy and politics.
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| Elisabeth's marriage to Charles Robert of Hungary |
In 1335, Casimir III attended a summit of leaders in Visegrad, Hungary along with the King of Bohemia to form a united front to check the growing encroachment of the Holy Roman Empire to Eastern and Central Europe. Moreover, it also became the ground to settle territorial disputes between the 3 Kingdoms. During the summit, John of Luxembourg, ruler of Bohemia, renounced his claim to the Kingdom of Poland that stood as a rival claimant for his and his father. In exchange for this renunciation, Poland paid 400,000 silver groats and renounced claims over the productive region of Silesia. Casimir saw the territorial concession as a minor setback to secure peace while also considering practicality whether Poland could capably handle a territory with a growing German population. The Treaty of Trentschin reaffirmed this arrangement.
Following the Visegrad Congress, another meeting convened in the city in 1339 to deal with Poland’s succession problem. Casimir the Great fathered no male heir in all of his marriages. To stabilize the political future of the country, Casimir agreed to designate his nephew and Hungarian Prince Louis as his heir. All sides agreed and secured the future of Poland.
On the other hand, Casimir maintained a fragile peace with the Teutonic Knights. In 1331, Casimir’s father defeated the Order in the Battle of Plowce which gave Poland diplomatic leverage in negotiations. In 1333, a truce struck between Poland and the Teutonic Order allowed the Catholic military organization’s Grand Master Luther von Braunschweig to attend Casimir’s coronation. Both sides reaffirmed the peace in the Visegrad Summit. Talks for a long-term peace settlement drag on in Rome and Warsaw until 1343 ending with the signing of the Treaty of Kalisz. Under the agreement Poland loss control over Pomerania and Gdansk blocking the kingdom off from the Baltic Sea. The Polish Kingdom nonetheless retook Kujawy and Dobrzyn, lands lost during Wladyslaw I’s reign.
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| Battle of Plowce by Juliusz Kossak |
While Casimir suffered from loss of territory in the west and north, he compensated with expansions east. In 1340, the ruler of Halicz-Volhynia in the region called Ruthenia/Red Russia Prince Yuri II Boleslav’s (Boleslaw-Jerzy II) demise triggered his agreement with Poland that upon his passing the territory would fall to Casimir III. The Polish Monarch moved in to secure his new dominion. A competition then erupted between Lithuania and Poland over the territory. It took until 1366 for Casimir to secure the region under which he initiated the consolidation of Polish hold through liberal policies. Casimir accepted diversity and though he prepared for the eventual inclusion of the region to the Catholic organization, he continued to allow the practice of Greek Orthodoxy. He also welcomed Lithuanian vassals and maintained the status quo. Besides, from 1351 to 1353, Casimir slowly, but surely vassalized much of the Lords of Masovia. He secured the dominion over these territories after recognizing Bohemian control over Swindica (Scheweidnitz) and Jawor (Jauer).
Over the reign of Casimir, Poland’s territory expanded from a size of 50,000 square miles to 90,000 square miles.
Casimir also expanded the diplomatic reach of Poland. Casimir's relations with Lithuanian coincided with personal affairs with his marriage to Aldona-Ona (Anna), daughter of the Duke of Lithuania. With Aldona’s arrival came the return of 24,000 Polish POW captured during the conflict between the 2 countries. Relation remained smooth along with the marriage. Casimir also dealt with Valdemar Atterdag of Denmark in economic terms, especially with regards to the Holy Roman Empire and the Hanseatic League. He also established continuous communication with the Pope in Avignon being aware of having the influential pontiff as a strong strategic partner.
Casimir’s headways in diplomacy resulted in Poland’s growing international presence. His efforts culminated with the convening of the Congress of Krakow in 1364 attended by King of Hungary Louis I, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Bohemia Charles IV, Archduke of Austria Rudolf IV, King of Demark Valdemar IV, Cyprus King Pierre de Lusignan (Peter I), Duke Otto of Bavaria, Duke Ziemowit of Masovia, Duke Bolko of Swidnica, Duke Wladyslaw of Opole, and Duke Boguslaw of Slupsk. The summit’s agenda focused on the formation of an anti-Turkish coalition meant to launch a crusade in the Levant. The meeting concluded with empty promises and ended up discussing disputes between Hungary and Bohemia. According to the French poet Guillaume de Machault, the summit also hosted a lavish celebration and jousting with the most legendary being one by Krakow merchant Nicholas Wierzynek. Despite the lack of concrete declaration, the fact that numerous important leaders attended the Congress demonstrated the credibility as well as the importance of Poland in international affairs.
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| Congress of Krakow |
The Polish King also extended alliances over different royal and noble families through marriage. For example, her daughter Elizabeth married Bogislaw V of Pomerania, which could provide Poland a future stake in the succession within the duchy. His 2nd daughter Kunigunde married Louis of Brandenburg to enlist the German principality’s support against the Teutonic Order. Casimir also attempted to use his marriages for the same effect, but the lack of heirs led to a string of failures and even scandals.
The Succession Problem and Demise
Despite Casimir’s success in politics, he failed in his dynastical duty to produce an heir. His marriage to Aldona of Lithuania characterized as unhappy ended with the Queen’s death in 1339. He then married Aldelhaid of Hesse in 1341, with the backing of Charles I of Bohemia who sought to counterbalance Hungarian influence in the court represented by Elizabeth, an intention that the King of Poland would have shared. But the failure of paying the dowry to the bride’s side and absence of a son resulted in the failure of the marriage and Aldelhaid returned home in 1356 - a separation without Papal annulment. Then came his marriage in 1365 to the Silesian Princess Hedwig of Glogau-Sagan. This time aimed towards staking a future claim to Silesia. This marriage became scandalous due to the lack of formal annulment by the papacy over his previous marriage. Casimir had a Papal Dispensation, a de facto annulment paper, forged to have the wedding. Casimir took the risk of ex-communication but avoided this when he sent Polish troops to aid Pope Urban V in his conflict with Milan. The difficult road for marriage, nevertheless, failed to produce an heir, thus maintaining the conditions set in 1339.
In 1339, to prevent internal strife and with influence from his sister Elizabeth, Casimir declared his nephew Louis I of Hungary as his successor. This situation, however, required the support of his nobles who later sought privileges and concession for their approval. In 1370, Casimir III passed away after a hunting accident. He left his kingdom to Louis I of Hungary as expected.
Summing Up
Casimir III’s wooden Poland stood dangerous in the middle of more powerful neighbors, united in a volatile situation, and literally still built buildings in wood. After his reign, his country stood firmer with his reforms in currency, industry, infrastructure, and law. It stood safer after his hard-won and expensive peace with his neighboring country. The peace itself provided the stability needed to enact the domestic reform necessary to leave Poland a better country upon Casimir’s death in 1370.
See also:
Bibliography:
Book:
Halecki, O. A History of Poland. New York, New York: Dorset Press, 1992.
Mizwa, Stephen (ed.). Great Men and Women of Poland. New York, New York: The Macmillan Company, 1942.
General Reference:
"Kazimierz III Wielki." Historical Dictionary of Poland, 966 - 1945. Edited by George Lerski. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1996.
Websites:
Cawley Charles. "Poland." Foundation for Medieval Genealogy. Accessed on December 31, 2020. URL: http://fmg.ac/Projects/MedLands/POLAND.htm#_ftnref586
Rhose, Gotthold K.S. " Casimir III." Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed on December 31, 2020. URL: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Casimir-III
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