Every new technology developed brings mix of reactions. Hesitations and missed expectation formed as part of birthing pains. Same goes to even technology taken for granted today, for instance, France’s reaction during the early inception of railroads.
France at the Dawn of the Railroad Age
A Kingdom in a catch up mode looking towards recent development across the English Channel to improve their own modes of transportation. After decades of turbulence, the French industrialist and engineers hoped to achieve the same breakneck speed of development in England. It set the stage for the rise of railroads in France.
Use of tracks to transport goods traced its origins as far back as the ancient time finding a revival in German mines in the 1550s in the form of wagonways. Back then wood formed the tracks, but developments in iron production created stronger metal in large quantities enough to withstand heavy loads and constant use. By the late 18th century, England welcomed the earliest iron railroads in history capable of transporting both materials and passengers. Tracks made of iron, yet the carriages remained to be horse-drawn, but it allowed greater capacity than usual road travel.
While England developed railroads, France underwent turbulent times. A Revolution followed by war occupied the attention of the French. Though the period saw several innovations such as the Joseph-Marie Jacquard’s loom and Nicholas Appert’s canning/bottling, by the end of the Napoleonic War, the conflict exhausted the people and the economy.
By the 1820s, France may have been wounded, but they hoped to restore their nation’s pride by catching up to the productivity of their European rivals, especially England. Local French industrialists hoped to raise their profits but inefficiencies in the transportation prevented them. Initially they relied on abysmal roads lacking maintenance under the restored Bourbon Kings in Paris due to budgetary constraints. Canals also provided means, but topographic features especially in mountainous terrain limited its reach. They then sought engineers who looked at the developments of the English railroad as a solution to connect mines or ironworks with the canals.
A Kingdom where its local industries hoping to improve the movement of their transportation looked elsewhere for a solution. An old mode of transportation which saw improvements in England seemed to provide the answer. The ball then fell to engineers and officials on the adaptation of the technology in France.
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| The Collier by George Walker showing a steam-powered locomotive in the Middleton Railway |
Railroads of Saint-Etienne
Use of railroads or tramways in France began with mines and picked up pace starting in 1817 and throughout the 1820s.It culminated with France's first railroad lines in its industrial centers. It took a while until Paris turned railways into an engine of economic and industrial growth.
Like England, France also had wagonways made of wood in its mines. Mont Cenis, Anzin Collieries and Poullaouen copper mines used wooden tracks for its wagon to transport ore. But its usage outside of the mine shafts for long range transport took off 2 years after the end of the Napoleonic Wars.
Louis de Gallois published a pamphlet in 1817 praising the tramways of England. This mining engineer from Saint-Etienne positively reviewed the railroads of Newcastle for being cheap and feasible in mountainous terrains. He saw it as an efficient connector between roads and canals.
Saint-Etienne, where Louis de Gallois worked, not surprisingly hosted the first railroad in France. On May 15, 1821, Louis Beunier and Claude Hochet, the Secretary of the Council of State, floated a proposal for a tramroad made of cast-iron connecting Saint-Etienne to the Rhone and Loire Rivers. Along with the this proposals, 2 companies also made the same proposal, the Compagnie des Mines de la Loire and Compagnie des Fonderies et Forges Frerejean.
The proponents demonstrated the growing industries of Saint-Etienne. The town witnessed the growth of an iron industry powered by new methods and technologies alongside a silk industry also rising. The rise of its industrialists looked forward to continuing the momentum by investing in improvements in transportation.
The first railroad in France connecting Saint-Etienne and Andrezieux in the Loire eventually materialized in 1823. In that year, the 3 proponents merged to manage the line. It stretched for 18 km. and hosted horse-drawn wagons.
Another line connecting Saint-Etienne and Lyon then followed in 1827. The line took a decade to be completed and stretched for 58 km. along rugged rugged terrain. Its builder, Marc Segun (Seguin), enjoyed a reputation as a brilliant engineer who constructed France’s first suspension bridge. He translated this engineering success to railroads.
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| Marc Segun (Seguin) |
Segun’s line saw several improvements compared to the first line. Of course it boasted a longer line and its first section that joined Saint-Etienne and the Givors Canal opened in 1830. But in 1832, Segun who travelled to England and discussed deeply with Robert Stephenson and his son, introduced the use of steam-powered locomotives. Thus, it launched France’s first railroad hosting a steam-powered locomotive.
The development of the first railroad in Saint-Etienne demonstrated that the use of the technology did not yet reach mainstream use. Its capital derived from local businessmen and engineers along with their relatives and friends. It lacked major backing from the government in Paris or even its bankers.
Later on, the early railroads fell in financial difficulty, especially Sagun’s line. The early lines required concession from the government and to receive one, proponents offered low freight rates to the detriment of profits. Thus, the worrisome return on investment questioned the viability of railroads in the 1830s.
Rule of the Bourgeoisie
The 1830s opened with a bang for France. A new King came to power backed by bankers and industrialists. This pack supported the railroads, but they faced significant challenges from profitability as well as public perception.
King Louis-Philippe came to power through revolution amidst economic turmoil. Rising food prices and slow down in industries exacerbated political tensions that led to Louis-Philippe taking power with the help of the bourgeoisie which included financiers and businessmen. Later communist and socialist described his enthronement as “the victory of the finance bourgeoisie over the landed capitalist.”
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| King Louis-Philippe |
These bourgeoisie held enormous influence and economic might over the new regime. Men like Jacques Laffitte, Casimir Periere, and James Mayer de Rothschild rose in stature with some serving as officials and even Prime Minister. Besides economic heft, much of Louis-Phiippe’s backers also subscribed to the school of Saint-Simon.
Saint-Simonism helped to fuel the rise of railroads. The thought called for “producers” mainly industrialists but anyone who produced with work to take over temporal power while scientist and engineers to replace the clergy and command spiritual power. This principle grew after 1825 and gained traction among bankers, mostly bankers, Jews, and engineers.
Saint-Simonism and railroads formed an alliance by the 1830s. Initially Saint-Simonism only generally called for megaprojects, but its later follower Michel Chevalier published a series of articles called Système de la Méditerranée. The work called for the unification of Europe to maintain peace and to be achieved by interconnection through the means of canals, roads, and finally railroads.
Some wealthy people welcomed the proposal but they faced major backlash from the public and even some government officials. One published article wrote, “The fire from the engine would set forests and crops on fire. The noise of the trains would make the neighboring country house and properties uninhabitable, and drive mad the cattle pasturing in the vicinity of the railway.” Adolphe Thiers also shared pessimism of the infrastructure when he commented on the project, stating: “We must give the Parisians this as a toy, but it will never carry a passenger or a parcel.” Against this backdrop some influential figures placed their bet in railroads
Several figures, fortunately placed their bets in the burgeoning railroad craze. In the financial sector, the great James Mayer de Rothschild placed his confidence in the technology and would do so for future decades to come. In government, the Directory of Corps des Ponts et Chaussées, Victor Legrand supported the railroads and even orchestrated the so-called Legrand Star.
To solve the sluggish economy that caused he 1830 Revolution, stimulating the economy became the focus of the July Monarchy in 1832. With the backing of the industrialists and bankers, Paris then hoped to bring life to the economy by investing in infrastructure. One of their focus went to railroads.
The Railroad Act of 1833 hoped to support the growth of the industry. It placed under the National Assembly the power to grant railroad concessions while also setting aside 500,000 Francs for the study of railroads. The fund financed the sending of engineers to Great Britain and America as well as laying out potential routes.
The Legrand Star also came up in 1833 and became the basis for railroad constructions. It planned to connect Paris with major ports, such as Le Havre, Calais and Marseilles, international borders with Spain, Belgium, Switzerland, and Italy, as well as industrial centers such as the Nord, Alsace-Lorraine, and the Loire. Moreover, it joined Paris with strategic military bases such as in Verdun, Metz, and Brest. A Paris radiating with railroads in the map formed the star.
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| James Mayer de Rothschild |
Line Laid Out
Needed by economic recovery and supported by the private sector, several lines began construction and operation. They faced, however, some challenges, but moved forward nonetheless. It paved a way for a bonanza in the succeeding decade.
The Paris-St. Germain Line became the earliest major line that earned major public interest. The Pereire Brothers pushed for this project raising 6 million Francs and later found additional 3 million Francs from James Mayer de Rothschild. It gained concession in 1837 and began operation in 1839.
Several line followed after the Paris-St. Germain project took off. The Paris-Corbeil Line started operation in 1840. In Alsace, the Mulhouse-Thann Line started to run in 1839 which expanded to the Strasbourg-Mulhouse-Basel Line by 1841 financed by the prominent Alsatian and cotton magnate Nicholas Koechlin.
Financial difficulty plagued the early railroads. For instance, a third railroad connecting Saint-Etienne, Andrezieux, and Roanne failed to take off and eventually faced bankruptcy in 1836. The Paris-St. Germain Line of the Pereire and Rothschild also suffered from low profits due to a cut throat competition with a parallel line operated by Achilles Fould. The railroad companies required high capital, faced immense regulation, and sometimes cut-throat competition.
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| Carriages traversing the Saint-Etienne-Lyon Railroad (Horse and Locomotives) |
The Railway Act of 1842 hoped to address some concerns on the railroad. It opted for a partnership between the state, local government, and private players in the construction and operation of the line. The law divided the cost of line construction with state government providing one-third of the cost and the laying of tracks, with local governments paying another one-third and other infrastructure needs. Lastly, the private concessionaires that received 33 years concession while being in charge of building “superstructures” which included stations, signal boxes, and locomotives.
Mixed results came out of the 1842 Law. It displayed government support for the industry which boosted confidence in it. Unfortunately, most of the local governments refused to share in the burden of building new lines, hence most of the cost went to the state government and concessionaires.
A sort of public-private-partnership emerged. With the state providing capital to the construction, it gave it the right to take over the line once the concession expired. It also allowed the state to appoint representatives to the board of directors of railroad companies. It expanded state control by suggesting routes, fares, and rates.
More lines eventually began to be constructed and operated after the 1842 Act gave Paris’ support in the industry. The line connecting Paris and Le Havre started to be realized with the first section that joined Paris and Rouen opened in 1843 and the link completed in 1847. Paris-Orleans Line started operation in 1843. The line connecting Paris and Marseille began to be built being divided into 3 sections: Paris-Lyons, Lyons-Avignon, and Avignon-Marseilles. It faced a hurdle though when all 3 railroad companies in charge of it went bankrupt.
A rail between Paris and Lille opened in 1846 after a speedy construction due to the use of steam shovels and capital coming to the Rothschild. The line connected coal-rich Belgium to the northern industrial centers spurring industrial activity. It became a lucrative and consequential line as it dropped the price of coal supporting France's industrialization.
The eastern railway connecting Paris-Strasbourg turned out to be another consequential railroad. Construction started in 1847, it opened in 1852 with the capital provided by the Rothschild. Its terminus laid near the industrial Saar region of Prussia. The line fostered the growth of the cotton industry in the region.
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| Existing Lines in France (1837) from Fontana Economic History of Europe |
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| Existing Lines in France (1846) from Fontana Economic History of Europe |
British investment, in addition to government involement, aided the increase in railroad lines. The Paris-Rouen Line demonstrated the Anglo-French efforts.The line came as a result of combining capital from Charles Laffittte (nephew of Jacques Laffitte, an influential banker and official in Louis-Philippe’s regime), and the London & Southampton Railways. English engineers, like Joseph Locke, Thomas Brassey and William Mackenzie, provided technical assistance.
Many other lines also enjoyed British investments. This included the lines between Mantes-Cherbourg & Le Mans, Amiens-Boulogne, and the Valence-Avignon Line. By 1847, half of the equity in the French railroad belonged to the British.
Dark clouds rained on the parade of the railroads by the late 1840s. The French government accumulated 1.5 million francs in debt to finance railroad construction between 1840 to 1847. British capital also began to dry out when installment payments for railroad shared stopped in 1847. With government and British investments slowing down, railroads construction felt the effects. Economic downturn also affected with rise in grain prices again. The economic ailments led to the 1848 Revolution that toppled the July Monarchy.
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| Throne room seized by mob during 1848 Revolution |
Impact
For more than 2 decades, the French railroad industry experienced financial difficulty and hesitations. Despite this, some pushed on profiting and brough profound changes to France. With lessons from the early lines, France learned its lessons which resulted to exponential growth of the industry under the succeeding regimes.
Datawise, the hesitation in railroads manifested in the lengths of railroads. In 1842, France only had 885 km. of rail which dwindled in comparison to other European powers with Great Britain’s 3,600 km. and Prussia’s 2,800 km. By 1847, France’s rail length doubled to 1,830 km, but still not enough to surpass Great Britain’s 10,000 km. Even dwarfed by other powers, France still enjoyed the benefits of the railroads.
Railroads set the stage for France’s industrialization. It created a national market by connecting various regions allowing greater distribution of goods and increase in revenue plus profits. It also stimulated other industries such as iron and coal providing opportunities for growth and innovation to meet the demands.
Railroads, proving their importance economically, soon became a strategic asset. Its value militarily became apparent during the later regimes allowing faster mobilization of troops and resources. Know-hows in railroads, may it be operations or construction, became an instrument of influence when constructing lines in other countries, for instance Spain.
Summing Up
Railroads shared the similar enthusiasm grabbed by AI in the 21st century. It faced pessimism and demonization as well as financial difficulty. But as time progressed and technologies improve, it became efficient and productive, becoming a vital asset for countries.
See also:
Bibliography:
Cipolla, Carlo (ed.). Fontana Economic History of Europe: The Emergence of Industrial Societies-1. London: Collins Clear-Type Press, 1973.
Dunham, Arthur Louis. The Industrial Revolution in France, 1815 - 1848. New York, New York: Exposition Press, 1955.
Henderson, W.O. The Industrial Revolution of the Continent (Germany, France, Russia), 1800 - 1914. Chicago, Illinois: Quadrangle Books, 1961.
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