From obscure and mysterious origins, though
they never ruled over a vast land empire nor even united into a single powerful
state, the Phoenicians made a name in history as talented merchants and
navigators.
Early
Beginnings
The origin of the Phoenicians remained an
enigma. Few sources narrated their beginnings, as they left little to no
written history telling about the roots of their people.
Most of the details of their history came
from their neighbors such as the Israelites, Egyptians, Persians, and especially
the Greeks. The Greeks made the name Phoenician well known starting in 1,100
BCE. The word came from the Greek word Phoines, meaning purple referring to the
famous color of the dye they produced. The Phoenicians, however, labelled
themselves differently calling themselves Canaanites. The word also used by
Hebrews to describe them which came from the word Kena’ani or merchant. A
reference to the impeccable skills of Phoenician traders.
Phoenicians said to have been migrants from
the coast lands of the Persian Gulf before leaving for the historical region of
Levant which now composed of modern day Lebanon, Syria, and Israel. They
arrived in the region about 3,000 BCE and thrived until they began to fade in
history in the 3rd century BCE.
Despite being known as prominent traders, the
Phoenicians did not formed into a large united political entity unlike their
contemporaries such as Egyptians, Babylonians, Assyrians, and Persians. They
contented with themselves in forming several independent city-states like
Beyrut and Byblos. Sidon which meant fishing town referring to its humble
origins grew to prominence with another city-state – Tyre. Other less prominent
Phoenician city-states included Arvad, Tarsus, Ugarit, and Katna. Each state
had their own ruling princes and kings.
Rise of
the Phoenicians
Rather than mustering their energy into establishing
a powerful kingdom, the Phoenicians devoted their lives in economic
development. They mastered their commercial skills being famous merchants while
others developed sought-after luxury goods. With such skills, they developed
into an economic powerhouse becoming the Dutch and the British of the ancient
world.
The Phoenicians began to make a name as
merchants about 2,200 BCE. Phoenician city states such as Byblos fostered close
relations with the Egyptians. By the end of the 2,000 BCE, the Phoenicians fell
to the influence of the Amorites. The Amorites introduced agrarian reform that
gave lands to individuals without any obligations to local rulers. As a result,
entrepreneurship grew and strengthened among the Phoenicians.
During 1,800 BCE, the Phoenicians fell yet
again to another invader – Hyksos. The Hyksos also invaded Egypt, Anatolia, and
Mesopotamia. The unity of prosperous lands under the Hyksos became an opportunity
for the Phoenicians to further their economy. However, with wealth and power came
ambition for independence and from 1,600 to 1,500 BCE the Phoenicians rebelled.
But their fight for liberation coincided with
the aggressive expansion of the New Kingdom of Egypt. During the reign of
Thutmose III from 1,504 to 1,450 BCE, Egypt pushed the Hyksos out of Egypt and
Sinai before proceeding to the Levant and the Phoenician cities. The
Phoenicians found themselves free from the Hyksos, but only to fall into the
sphere of influence of the Egyptians. Nonetheless, the skilled Phoenicians
merchants found opportunity in crisis. As the New Kingdom mustered wealth from
gold and grain, the Phoenicians served as traders of Egyptian produce and supplier
of luxury items such as dye and jewelry.
Pinnacle
of Phoenician Civilization
Ships and
Navigation
Phoenicians commercial success rooted in
their shipbuilding and navigational skills. This along with their skills as
shrewd negotiators and procurers led to their prosperity.
The Phoenicians ship builders first began to
produce tub-shaped ships called by the Greeks as Gauloi. These ships had a short hull and powered by a single row of
oars and a single square sail. It had no rudder and relied on the rowers and
the sails to direct the ship’s course. Goods went into the deck and hull while
it towed its timber shipments in the back.
By 1,000 BCE, they developed sleeker ships than
the Gauloi. They also added rudders and steering oars that improved the
maneuverability, while new added keels increased stability. By the 8th and 7th
century, the Phoenicians ships developed twin decked oars that later came to be
known as biremes.
Alongside ship design, the Phoenicians
developed their navigational skills. Trading voyages in the ancient world
paralleled to gambling. Cargo ships lose in sea or shipwrecked meant loss of
enormous capital and investment from Phoenician merchants. Thus, development of
navigation techniques relaxed traders and investors. The Phoenicians use of
stars gave their seamanship a legendary status in history. Their skills led
them to venture beyond the Strait of Gibraltar reaching as far as the Azores
Island, Cromwell in England. This allowed them to be hired by different navies. For example, Phoenicians manned the expedition sponsored by
Commercial
Empire
Commerce meant survival to Phoenicians. Due
to Phoenicians states lacking large tracks of land to feed their population,
their profits from trading bought them essential needs such as clothing, food,
gold, copper. It also financed importation of luxurious goods such as pearl and slaves. Fostering good commercial relations took paramount importance. Such as the case with Egypt, where Phoenicians sold goods to Egyptians and in turn bought Egyptian agricultural products.
Besides trade, Phoenicians also specialized in
production of certain goods that became legendary. Tyre made a reputation as a luxury
power-brand with its purple dye extracted from murex shells found in its
shallow coastline. Herodotus described the production of the famous dye produced n in his work Histories. The dye’s color even produced the word Phoenicians. The
dye’s expensive price turned it to a status symbol to the point royals used it
for their robes to symbolize wealth and power. It remained as a symbol of power
beyond the time of the Phoenicians as Roman Emperors garbed purple robes for
centuries. Furthermore, little to no flags used purple due to its high price.
On the other hand, Sidon developed a glass
industry which Pliny detailed in his work Naturalis
Historia. Phoenicians learned glass making from the Egyptians and developed
it to be a major industry. The Sidonians even had been credited by inventing
glass blowing. They offered a variety of glass ranging from transparent to
stripped color as well as opaque glass. Sidon also made glass beads some of
which reached as far as England, specifically near the site of Stonehenge, a
testament to the extent of the Phoenician economic network.
Byblos made a name as a papyrus trading center.
So much of the city’s success in trading this Egyptian product its city became
synonymous with the early paper. Many words pertaining to paper materials had a
root word from the city such as Bible and Bibliography.
Cedar tree shared a part in the Phoenician
economy. Towed behind ships, Phoenicians traded the tree across the
Mediterranean and Mesopotamia. It became a popular material for countries that
had massive infrastructure projects such as the Egyptians and Assyrians. Tyrian King Hiram used the cedar tree as a gift of friendship with Israel.
Other Phoenician products included olive oil
and wine produced from the grapes and wines planted in the little fertile lands
Phoenician had.
Colonial
Empire
Before the famous mercantile Empires of the
Venetians, Dutch, and British, the Phoenicians established a colonial empire that
began around 1,100 BCE. Early colonies served as trading stations where
Phoenicians dropped their exports and bought necessities and goods for
transshipment. Among their early colonies included Cyprus, an island which its
name came from the tree called Cypress that the Phoenicians probably exploited.
They also established the colony of Hippo Then the Phoenicians also established
Hippo. which later became a major center in North Africa even beyond the time
of the Phoenicians and home of the famous Christian saint St. Augustine.
Then Carthage also emerged as a child of
Phoenicia. Tyrians founded the city in 814 BCE in the lands of modern day
Tunisia. Legends tell that the Tyrian Queen Dido escaped political upheaval and
sought refuge in North Africa. Through her resourcefulness and cleverness, she
founded the Kart hadasht, which in Phoenician meant New City.
Phoenician colonies sprang across the
Mediterranean such as in Corsica, Sardinia, Malta, Gibraltar, Portugal, and
Cadiz, where they discovered silver mines. They extent of Phoenician
colonization made the Mediterranean a Phoenician lake.
Phoenician
Culture
With the economy booming and its people
spreading their wings across the Mediterranean, Phoenician culture developed.
Society, religion, and culture mirrored the openness of Phoenicians. Some of
their cultural legacy contributed to the progress of man.
Phoenicians cities grew to cosmopolitan
centers where different cultures existed together. This mainly to the trade
relations the Phoenicians had and a testament to their openness and
progressiveness.
Merchants dominated Phoenician society. Self-made
merchants and craftsmen earned high place in society and politics with their
skills and talent. Women also had better rights in Phoenician society. They had
right to own property and inherit from their patents. If Dido really exist, she
displayed the degree of sophistication of Phoenician women – bold, cunning, and
resilient.
In religion Phoenicians worshiped variety of
deities. They address their gods as Baal or Lord as well as Baalat or Lady to
which they offered sacrifices known as tophets. El came to be known as the
supreme Baal worshiped by the Phoenicians, while Astarte took a prominent position
as a Baalat. Though the Phoenicians had their own pantheon of gods and goddess,
Phoenician cities welcomed the worship of foreign gods, such as the case of Re
and Hathor of Egypt as well as Hadad of Mesopotamia.
Many of Phoenician writings, however, failed
to survive the passage of time and the remnants had religious nature.
Nonetheless, the surviving Phoenician records displayed the simple figures that
served as Phoenician alphabet. The simplicity of Phoenician alphabet compared
to Mesopotamian cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphs became the basis of the
Greek alphabet adapted during the 8th and 7th century. Even the word alphabet
derived from names of the first 2 letter in the Phoenician aleph and beth or alpha
and beta.
The Phoenicians also displayed their skills
in the arts. Their jewelry showed influence of Egyptian and Mesopotamian
motifs. They also produced faience and sculpted limestone sarcophagus, such as
for King Ahiram of Byblos. They made carvings from ivory and wood, which
craftsmen sold to the wealthy or even exported to other countries.
Decline
and Fall
With wealth, the Phoenicians bought prestige
and strength. They built fortifications and maintained their independence as
much as possible. And so despite foreign invasions, they kept their resilience
and fought to maintain their independence as much as possible.
In the 9th century, the Assyrian Empire
marched against the Levant and Phoenician. In 868 BCE, they maintained their
independence by paying tribute to King Ashurnasirpal II. This Assyrian scheme
of levying tribute in exchange for peace continued for centuries. The
uncertainty of peace led to some Phoenician to find new lands to settle,
leading to further colonization of lands around Mediterranean. Phoenicians
maintained peace and independence until King Ashurbanipal finally subjugated
them.
After the Assyrians, more foreign powers
controlled the Phoenicians. In the 7th century, the Assyrians fell to the
Babylonians who established supremacy over Phoenicia from 685 to 636 BCE. Some
Phoenicians fought to maintain their independence. Tyre rebelled in 587 BCE and
defended their city from King Nebuchadnezzar II for staggering 13 years until
they surrendered in 574 BCE.
By the latter years of the 6th century the
Persian Empire rose. Once again, the Phoenicians submitted to the Persians in
exchange for autonomy. The administration of the Persians earned the loyalty of
some Phoenicians with some serving in the Egyptian campaign of King Cambyses
II. They also fought in the botched Persian assault in the Battle of Salamis
suffering heavy casualties.
As the Persian Empire declined, a new power
emerged in form of Macedonia and its legendary conqueror Alexander the Great.
In 330 BCE, Tyre declined to surrender to Alexander offering stiff resistance from
their island fortress. However, the siege ended when Cyprus, the once colony of
Phoenicia turned into an independent Kingdom, joined Alexander. As a reprisal,
Alexander had the city laid in ruin.
The rise of Alexander marked the spread of
Hellenistic culture. This spread led to the decline of the Phoenician’s.
Eventually, Phoenicians continued to be occupied by other powers, especially by
Greek successor states to the Empire of Alexander the Great. Furthermore,
Phoenician city-states also faced tough competition as new economic centers
emerged in Alexandria and Antioch.
Phoenicia’s declined continued until the
cities fell to Rome. Centuries of Roman occupation led to the fading of the
Phoenician culture until it finally vanished and left only in the pages of
history.
Summing Up
Phoenicians showed a different legacy compared to other ancient civilizations. They did not boast a large empire, a powerful military, or strong conquerors. Rather, they showed the strength of commerce and navigation to leave an equally indelible mark as other empires in history. Strength of the Phoenicians came from the skills of its people and their resourcefulness that led them to thrive for more than a millennium.
Bibliography:
General Reference
"Phoenicians." In Encyclopedia of the Ancient World. Edited by Shona Grimbly. Chicago, Illinois: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, 2000.
Oliver, Graham. "Phoenicians." In Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece. Edited by Nigel Guy Wilson. New York, New York: Routledge, 2006.
Websites:
Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. "Phoenicia." In Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed on October 28, 2018. URL: https://www.britannica.com/place/Phoenicia
Book:
Hutchinson's Story of the Nations. London: Hutchinson & Co., Ltd., n.d.
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