Rise and Fall of the Persian Achaemenid Empire

One of the earliest largest contiguous land empires in history of the world, the Achaemenid ruled dominated the Middle East, Anatolia, and Northern Africa from their rise in 559 BCE until their downfall in 330 BCE. it became a source of pride and identity that reached to this very day of modern day Iran.

Foundation and Rise

The glorious and powerful Persians surprisingly started as nomads in the Zagros Mountains in the Iranian Plateau. Despite their nomadic lifestyle they developed water tunnels carved out of mountains called qanats. This development turned them into a sedentary and agricultural people. During the fall of the Assyrians, the Persians bowed to another great power – the Medes.

Under the Medes, Achaemenes (Hakhamanish in Assyrian) ruled a minor Persian kingdom called Anshan. His successors came to be known as the Achaemenids. However, many questioned existence with some suggesting he may be created by King Darius I to legitimize his claim to the throne.

From Achaemenes’s successor, King Teispes, 2 branch of the ruling dynasty emerged. The 1st line produced Cyrus I, Cambyses I, Cyrus II the Great, and Cambyses II. The 2nd line included Darius I and his successors.

The Persians once again transformed from vassals to overlords under the leadership of Cyrus II the Great (r. 559 – 529 BCE).

Cyrus the Great

Reign of Cyrus II

Cyrus II founded the Persian Empire. He rebelled against his Mede overlords and embarked in successful military campaigns cementing the empire he built through a policy of tolerance.

The Persian King fought for dominance against the Mede King Astyages. They clashed and Cyrus emerged victorious in the Battle of Pasargadae. From then on, the Persians and the Medes united laying the foundations of the Empire.

He then turned his attention to expanding into Anatolia. This pitted him against the powerful and wealthy Kingdom of Lydia and its legendary King Croesus. Cyrus won and to consolidate his rule, instead of slaying his beaten foe, he befriended King Croesus making him later his advisor. Following Anatolia, he marched against the prosperous city of Babylon. Again, Cyrus won, the city fell, he prevented a sacking of the city. Rather, he respected the Babylonian and their religion by paying homage to their deity Marduk.

A key to Cyrus’s quick pacification of conquered people lay in his tolerance. It united the Empire into a single realm despite the diverse culture, religion, and language of its population. He respected local culture and even took part in religious rituals and festivals. The empire became multilingual with several languages used from Old Persian language to, Akkadian, and Aramaic and later Greek then Egyptian. This fostered continuity, stability and safety. Hence, tolerance and diversity contributed to the success of the Empire.

Jews enjoyed this vibe. Cyrus the Great liberated them from the Babylonian yolk and allowed them to return to their homeland Israel. He also promised to them to return their treasures plundered by the Babylonians from their conquest decades ago.

Cyrus the Great’s reign ended with his fall in battle in 529 BCE during a campaign to crush the Scythian tribe called Massageta.

Lost army of Cambyses

Reign of Cambyses II

Cambyses II (r. 529 – 522 BCE) reigned after the brilliance of Cyrus the Great and continued the empire’s expansion. In 525 BCE, he annexed the fertile lands of Egypt. From there, Cambyses desired to conquer more lands in Northern Africa, but this venture failed to materialize. His plans of conquest of Ethiopia and Carthage ended without much success.

Cambyses, however, attracted controversy over his personality. Some called him mad and brutal compared to his predecessor. Egyptian sources painted him as respectful and tolerant following his father’s footsteps. But the Greek sources, especially that of Herodotus depicted him otherwise.

His reign, however, ended in disaster. A pretender, a magi with the real name of Gaumata according to Darius, took power by claiming to be Cambyses II’s brother Bardiya (Smerdis). Gaumata took control of the capital Susa by promising tax breaks and conscription ban for 3 years. Cambyses left Egypt dashing to the capital to end the pretender’s reign. On the way though, Cambyses passed away.

Height of Persian Glory

Reign of Darius I

Darius I

The Persian interregnum lasted for several months until the rise of King Darius I (r.522 – 486 BCE). His reign saw the apex of Persian power, wealth, and influence, but also saw the greatest challenge to its position sowing the seeds to a long conflict, the Greco-Persian War.

In 522 BCE, with Cambyses dead and a pretender in the throne, Darius with other nobles successfully deposed Gaumata. He then cunningly took power and established his reign. However, with the temporary unrest in the center, rebellions erupted across the Empire. According to the Behistun Inscription, Darius embarked in a campaign to reestablish control over the whole Empire.

Darius quelled numerous rebellions in every corner of the Empire then turned his attention in consolidating his power. He enacted profound reforms of the Empire’s administration and security.

He increased the number of Satrapies or provinces of the Empire from 10 Satrapies to 20. This made the administration and supervision more manageable. He then appointed abled satraps or governors to oversee day to day affairs and ensure timely delivery of designated tribute and taxes to the King. 

He also improved government bureaucracy. He made records keeping a duty of government officials. He kept strict discipline among the ranks of officials and maintained stifling supervision through spies and inspectors.

He strengthened the military keeping it ready to quell any rebellions. He established a special unit of elite soldiers called the Immortals numbering to 10,000. He had local granaries built to provide supplies to army units deployed in provinces.

He improved the Empire’s communication and infrastructure. He developed the Royal Road that connected the capital Susa to the western major city of Sardis in Anatolia. The development of the Road connected provinces through a postal service.

To keep the population content, he promised prosperity. This he managed through robust trade of different resources within the Empire’s fold. A standard currency called Daric based on silver and gold supplemented payments made in kind. Infrastructure projects, especially the Royal Road and the ancient Suez Canal connecting the Nide and Red Sea, further contributed in easing the flow of goods and also a source of employment. Multiple irrigation projects, in the form of canals and qanats, increased food production throughout the Empire.

Cultural Development

Washed with tremendous wealth from the Empire’s resources, the wealthy and powerful financed great cultural and artistic endeavors that displayed the majesty and sophistication of the Persians.

Architecture flourished. Kings and nobles ordered palaces built. Susa and Pasargadae displayed elements of Persian architecture that blended different styles from the diverse culture of the Empire. In 518 BCE, Darius ordered the construction of a new capital aimed to dwarf previous capitals in splendor – Persepolis.

Persian gardens became a common site in the homes of the elite. The basic design of gardens called the Chahar Bagh or 4-part garden became the basis of garden design through ages outliving even the Empire that started it. The design included a central intersection from which it divided an area into 4 or divisible by 4 segments with each being treated as a separated garden. The marvelous use of irrigation and organization created an aura of paradise on earth.

Under Darius, the religion of Zoroastrianism saw a rise in prominence. From the Behistun Inscription, it saw the piety of the Persian king to the god of the Zoroastrians – Ahura Mazda. It displayed the earliest monotheistic idea along with Judaism and ahead of Christianity. Though Zoroastrianism became the de facto state religion, freedom of worship continued.

Military Campaigns

With much of the rebellions and domestic issues dealt with reforms, Darius turned his attention in fulfilling his kingly duty of being a conqueror. He brought the Empire’s energy in expanding to the lands east until it reached the Indus Valley. He also had the Persian army cross the Dardanelles and attacked the European Scythians. Thrace and Macedonia submitted to Persian suzerainty that gave it virtual control of access to the Black Sea.

His latest military and diplomatic achievements, however, sparked a conflict that threatened the invisibility of the Empire.

19th century engraving of Greeks
fighting Persians

Greco-Persian War (490 – 449 BCE)

Unbeknownst to the Persians, their control of access to the Black Sea threatened the trade routes of the Greeks who began to plan to undermine Persian rule in Anatolia. In 499 BCE, Athens and Eretria supported the revolt of the Ionians in the region that lasted until 493 BCE with Persian victory. The Persians wanted to punish the Greeks for their support of the revolt and sent a fleet and established control over the whole Aegean Sea.

In 490 BCE, Persian forces landed on the coast of Marathon with the capture of Athens as their main objective. But the Persian faced stiff Greek resistance in Marathon forcing them to retreat. Though defeated, the whole Empire saw it only as a minor setback. The objective of subjugating the Greeks failed to be seen by Darius who passed away in 486 BCE.

Reign of Xerxes I

Xerxes I (r. 486 – 465 BCE) succeeded his father Darius I. His reign saw several rebellions against the monarchy as well as prompting a change in level of tolerance. Moreover, he also inherited a punitive war against the Greeks that challenged Persian might in 490 BCE.

Upon his ascension, Xerxes faced rebellion in the 2 richest regions of the Empire, Egypt and Babylonia. The rebellion lasted 5 years ending with both cities suffering brutal reprisals. Xerxes abandoned the titles from the 2 regions and abolished Babylon as a separate Satrap merging it with the Satrap of Assyria. Worst, he also desecrated the venerated god of the Babylonians Marduk by destroying his palace and melting his idols.

These events signaled the shift from tolerance to bigotry. Xerxes demonstrated further zeal in promoting Zoroastrianism than his father. His inscription suggested the Persian King aimed to promote Ahura Mazda at the expense of other religions. His order of demolishing the temple of Marduk reflected such views.

War Continues

With the rebellions quelled, 10 years after the Battle of Marathon, Xerxes and the Persian Empire reignited the conflict with the Greeks. For the campaign, the Persians exerted tremendous effort and feats to throw an overwhelming might against the Greeks. They conscripted a quarter of a million men and enlisted a multinational naval force composed of about 1,000 ships from different ethnicities, such as Phoenicians, Egyptians, and even Ionian Greeks. 

The Persians also built amazing infrastructure for the campaign. Xerxes ordered the construction of 2 great bridges in the treacherous and choppy waters of the Dardanelles. He had a canal near Mt. Athos dug to bypass the dangerous peninsula where the mountain sat.

For all their effort, the Persian scored victories against the Greeks. In August 480 BCE, the Persians crushed the Greeks in the twin battles of Thermopylae and Artemisium. By the following month, Persians marched into the city of Athens. Their capture of the city culminated with its burning. However, after victories, the hubris of Xerxes led to a disastrous defeat in the Battle of Salamis.

Decline of the Persian Empire

Xerxes Reign Continues

Xerxes dragged the war on. However, his spending in the war along with other decadence led to the mismanagement of the imperial coffers. The Persian court saw a rise in opulence and immorality that led to Xerxes’ untimely downfall.

The Greco-Persian War continued after the disaster in Salamis. With the navy destroyed and the remaining forces incapable of defending the King, Xerxes returned to Persia and left his commanders to continue the war. Soon after, the Persian military lost the Battle of Plataea which left the commander of the Persian expeditionary force dead. Persian naval dominance over the Aegean ended with the Battle of Mycale which later inspired a 2nd Ionian Revolt. The war dragged on with no sure victory in sight.

After his return from Greece, Xerxes descended into decadence. He went on a building spree by improving palaces and constructing greater halls. His lust for women became notorious that led to intrigue and infighting within the royal family and the court as a whole.

Ultimately, palace intrigue brought an end to Xerxes. In 465 BCE, a favorite courtier assassinated Xerxes while in his sleep. He became among the first in a series of assassinations of reigning Kings in the later history of the Persian Empire.

Xerxes’ Successors

Xerxes’ son Artaxerxes (r. 465 – 424 BCE) ascended. Under his reign the Persians made peace with the Greeks losing the Ionian provinces as the cost. With the successful cessation of Ionians under Persian rule, other provinces rebelled. Egypt and Bactria became major centers of descent.

Under Artaxerxes successors, the imperial court further descended into intrigue and infighting  among ambitious officials and courtiers. The empire’s local administration turned rogue as some Satraps rebelled with impunity calling for independence from the Empire.

Artaxerxes III (r. 359 – 338 BCE) successfully salvaged the monarchy and restored some order within the Empire. However, the core of the Empire remained to rot with power play. The King’s favorites such as Mentor of Rhodes and Bagoas moved to secure power and influence within the court. His reign ended with his assassination orchestrated by Bagoas who elevated Prince Arses (r. 338 – 336 BCE) as the new king – a mere puppet for the ambitious favorite of the King.

The weak Arses made a botched attempt to take power from then Vizier Bagoas who discovered the plot and assassinated the favorite. Eventually, he elevated another Prince who reigned as Darius III (r. 336 – 330 BCE). Darius III fared better than Arses when he successfully overthrew the Machiavellian Vizier.

Alexander the Great

His reign and name, however, failed to resurrect the powerful Persian Empire. Rather, he became the fiercest enemy and the main antagonist in the story of the legendary conqueror Alexander the Great. He failed to defeat the Macedonian general in the fields of Gaugamela despite levying the largest army in the Empire that numbered to quarter of a million. After his defeat, one by one, rich satraps surrendered to Alexander. Ultimately, his reign and the saga of the Achaemenid Persian Empire ended with his death in 330 BCE.

Summing Up

The Persian Empire dominated the ancient world for its sheer size and influence in history. It inspired great conquerors and became a model for administration and governance. The Empire showed the strength of tolerance, but also showed the downside of success. Wealth and power corrupted men, especially Kings and nobles. Eventually hubris brought the descent of the Empire and finally its downfall.

See also:
Persian Achaemenid Architecture

Bibliography:

Websites:

“Achaemenid Empire.” In Iran Chamber Society. Accessed on Septmeber 23, 2018. URL: http://www.iranchamber.com/history/achaemenids/achaemenids.php

The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. “Achaemenian Dynasty.” In Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed on September 23, 2018. URL: https://www.britannica.com/topic/Achaemenian-dynasty

General Reference

“Introduction.” In The Persian Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia. Edited by Mehrdad Kia. Santa Barbara, Californi: ABC-CLIO, 2016.

“Achaemenids (Achaemenians).” In Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East. Edited by Jamie Stokes. New York, New York: Facts on File, Inc., 2009.