Founders: Dost Mohammad of the Barakzai Dynasty

He lived, survived, and thrive in a volatile Afghanistan. Filled with rivalry between family, clans, and tribes he established a dynasty. He survived an invasion of the most powerful empire of his time and contributed to the independence of his country. Dost Mohammad established the Barakzai Dynasty in 1826 and produced leaders for Afghanistan until 1973.

Early Life

Born in 1793, Dost Mohammad belonged to the 22 sons of Payenda Khan, a close adviser and ally of the Sadozai ruler Shah Timur of Afghanistan (r. 1772 – 1793) and the successor Zaman Shah (r. 1793 – 1800). Payenda’s service, however, ended with betrayal and his killing by the orders of his Zaman Shah in 1800. Dost witnessed his brother Fatteh Khan call upon their fellow Barakzai Clan to avenge their father’s death. They supported a brother of Zaman Shah, Mahmud Shah, to claim and to take the throne.

The Barakzai Clan held an important position within the Sadozai Empire. Both belonged to the same Durrani Pashtun tribe, moreover the Barakzai served as loyal lieutenants and close allies of the ruling Sadozai dynasty. In fact, because of their larger number than the Sadozai, they could have ruled Afghanistan earlier if not for their leader giving way for the founder of the Sadozai dynasty Ahmad Shah Durrani. Nonetheless, their large numbers made them a vital ally to gain an upper hand in the bloody Afghan politics.

Zaman Shah Durrani

Afghan politics in the late 18th century and 19th century proved to be a chaotic and cut throat affair. Each tribe fought each other by any means to gain supremacy. Even within each tribe, each clan served their own interest, thus shifting alliances and betrayals came common. Such the conditions Dost Mohammad grew up with and observed.

Mahmud Shah

Mahmud Shah succeeded in overthrowing his brother Zaman in 1801. Fatteh served Mahmud as a military commander until 1803, when the balance of power shifted once more and Mahmud saw himself deposed by his other brother Shah Shuja. Mahmud took until 1809 to reclaim his throne with the help of Fatteh Khan and sent his brother Shuja into exile in India - later becoming a thorn in Dost’s reign.

Dost served as a soldier of his brother. He showed great military prowess as well as courage in battle earning him a nickname Little Wolf. He witnessed the shifting tides of politics in which he learned to become both ruthless as well as diplomatic – characters he needed later on his life.

Barakzai Rebellion

Fatteh continued to serve Mahmud Shah as a capable commander. He commanded the Afghan armies against the Persians in the east. His talent and achievements, not to mention the influence the Barakzai clan held, threatened Mahmud’s son Kamran. He then became a subject of intrigue and jealousy of Kamran who succeeded in turning the opinion of Mahmud Shah. The end came for Fatteh in 1818 after being beaten and tortured by Mahmud Shah and Kamran.

Dost Mohammad raised the banner of rebellion in 1818 to avenge the death of his brother and their clan’s head. Within the same year, his rebellion contributed to the downfall of Mahmud Shah who fled east to Herat and into the embrace and protection of the Persians. The Sadozai Durrani Empire fell and the Barakzai took the reins of power.

Disintegration of the Durrani Empire followed the exile of Mahmud Shah. Dost Mohammad and his brothers agreed to divide the empire amongst themselves with Dost assuming control of Ghazni. Not long after, the brothers that came from mothers of different tribes became a rally point for diverse interest. Infighting between Afghans once more erupted.

Dost Mohammad rose to power in this scenario of division. Through his charisma, connection, and military skills, he expanded his domain beyond Ghazni. Between 1818 and 1824, he gained control of Kohistan before taking over Kabul after the death of brother as well as the city’ruler Mohammad Azam. He cemented his control of the major Afghan city of Kabul through the connections of his mother to the Qizilbash tribe that inhabited the city. Few years later, he gained enough support to elevate himself with the title of Emir of Afghanistan establishing the Barakzai as the ruling dynasty.

Consolidation of Power

Dost had to consolidate his power in Kabul in order to stay in power and remain alive amidst an unstable political situation. He must assert his authority to all of Afghanistan and must defend his regime from external threats. Only the following task accomplish Dost Mohammad could secure the Barakzai Dynasty.

Domestic consolidation of power came as an important task for Dost Mohammad. He must impose the authority of his Emirate to all the Pasthun tribes of Afghanistan. He must obtain a strong military force capable of imposing his will. He had to protect his rights to rule to both foreign enemies and contenders.

Centralization of the Emirates became a focus of the Emir in order to protect his new regime and prepare for possible external threats. It also aimed to bring peace to the battered land and provide a breathing space for the people to rebuild their lives. In this path, he standardized land and customs tax. He also established the rupee as the Emirate’s main currency. In politics, he concentrated power in his hands imprisoning, executing, and assassinating opponents. He never flinched in spilling blood of his enemies.

Afghan Soldiers (1847)

A professional army also came as a product of Dost Mohammad’s rule. He hired American, British, and French officers to trains his soldiers. He attempted to reorganize the military in line of modern practices. He divided the military into infantry, cavalry, and artillery units. His military also obtained gunpowder weapons that increased their capability to defend Dost Mohammad’s reign.

Reconquest of lands lost during the time of internal descent became an opportunity for Dost Mohammad to present himself as a great conqueror, defender of the Afghan lands, as well as a means to unite the people against a foreign foe. He extended his domains up to the borders of Peshawar that made him in direct contact owith the growing Sikh Empire of Punjab.

Contenders to his rule, despite his actions and reforms, remained a threat for Dost Mohammad. The deposed Shah Shoja of the late Sadozai house returned in 1834 to reclaim his throne. Dost Mohammad rallied his fellow Barakzai clan to war and fought with Shoja’s forces in the outskirts of Kandahar resulting in a resounding victory. Nonetheless, the threat from Shoja remained and became ever more problematic with the aggressive foreign policy of British India.

Ranjit Singh

External challenges also took the attention of the Emir of Afghanistan. The Emir of Bukhara invaded the Balkh region. On the other hand, the Sikh Empire flexed its muscles against Afghanistan by supporting Shah Shoja’s invasion of 1834 as well as annexing of Peshawar. Dost Mohammad went to war against the Sikh and scored a victory in the Battle of Jamrud after which he took the illustrious title of Amir Al-mu’minin or Commander of the Faithful – a title used as far back as the time of the Rashidun Caliphate in the 7th century. Despite his victory in Jamrud, Peshawar, a part deemed by the Pashtuns as part of their homeland, remained in the hands of the Sikh Empire and its ruler Ranjit Singh.

The Peshawar question loomed over the relations between Dost Mohammad, Ranjit Singh, and the British Governor-General of India Lord Auckland. The Emir of Afghanistan sought diplomatic channels in order to retake Peshawar. In 1837, Kabul welcomed the British envoy Alexander Burnes whom Dost Mohammad establish cordial relations with. Burnes also sided with Dost with regards to the question of leadership of Afghanistan. The question of leadership of Afghanistan and British involvement laid as a part of the so-called Great Game.

The Great Game already went underway by the time of Dost Mohammad ascension. Competition between the Russians and the British in South Asia and Middle increased through the years during Dost’s reign. The Russians aimed to gain a warm water port in the Persian Gulf, but the British hated the idea as it threatened London’s interest in India. British India’s governor-general Lord Auckland believed that a strong Anglo-friendly Afghanistan would be a key to the defense of India in case of Russian aggression. The governor-general believed that such Afghanistan laid with Shoja and not Dost.

First Anglo-Afghan War

Attack on Ghazni Fort (1839)

Dost Mohammad’s image to the British as well as his desire for the return of Peshawar collided and brought about the First Anglo-Afghan War. Dost Mohammad made all diplomatic request to the British to pressure Ranjit Singh to abandon Peshawar, but all efforts went in vain as Sikh military remained in the territory. He then decided to pressure the British by welcoming a mysterious Russian envoy Ivan Vitkevich. Dost’s actions led to deep suspicions by the British and convinced them to see him as a weak ruler to stand against Russian intervention. The British hatched plots to remove him and replace him with Shah Shoja.

The First Anglo-Afghan War erupted in 1839. Bribery and promises convinced many Afghan chiefs to allow the British forces to proceed to Kabul with only scarce confrontation. Dost flee to Bamiyan before proceeding to Bukhara. In 1840, he led a counter attack that only ended with his surrender and exile to India. His exile only lasted for about 3 years, as the British forces decided to leave the quagmire they entered to. Afghan resistance, slaughter after slaughter, broke the moral of the British and decided to retreat their forces in 1842, but not without sending a punitive expedition during summer of that year and saw the burning of Kabul Bazaar. Dost Mohammad returned to Afghanistan and restored his rule. By the time of his second reign, he must once again work hard to re-consolidate his power.

Second Chance

Dost Mohammad with his son (1841)

Second Reign of Dost Mohammad from 1843 once again aimed for the re-assertion of his authority throughout Afghanistan. He must reestablish order and integrity of Afghan lands. He also had to work hard and choose wisely with regards to foreign affairs to prevent another war against the British.

Retaking of lost territories during the Anglo-Afghan War took Dost Mohammad’s attention again. He campaigned to retake Kandahar which he successfully accomplished in 1854. Then, he turned his attention to Herat which also retaken in 1863.

Internal security and order followed. He worked to quell the rebellions of other Afghan tribes. The Anglo-Afghan War contributed in increase in cooperation between various tribes. The sense of fear of another invasion and common threat led to tribes to cooperate with each other in a lesser aggressive atmosphere. This spark of nationalism helped Dost Mohammad to secure the country faster.

Foreign affairs remained a key concerned for the emirates. Dost Mohammad ordered his son to expand their borders north taking territory from the Uzbeks and Turkmen.

Relations with the Sikh Empire, however, took an improving path. In 1845, the Emir formed a surprising alliance with the Sikh against the British in the 2 Anglo—Sikh Wars from 1845 up to 1849. During the final years of the war, while the Sikh fought with the British, however, Dost Mohammad ordered the recapture of Peshawar, the city that contributed to start of the Anglo-Afghan War. However, after the decisive Sikh defeat in the Battle of Gujrat on February 21, 1849, Emir Dost decided to abandon the city and avoid a confrontation or diplomatic crisis with the British.

Battle of Aliwal during the Anglo-Sikh War

Threat of the British went increasing as the years passed. In 1843, they had already annexed Sindh, followed by Kashimir in 1849 as well as Punjab in the same year and as a result of the Anglo-Sikh War. Finally Baluchistan fell to the British in 1859.

Relations with the British eventually improved. In 1855 and 1857, he agreed to the signing of Treaty of Friendship with the British and supported a declaration of war against the Persians for Herat during which he received subsidies from London. Despite the improving relations, he successfully avoided an English envoy to be assigned in Kabul that could be perceived as weakness and a dangerous path that might lead to internal intervention. Though he rejected a British envoy, he allowed an Indian Muslim to represent British India in his court. The British also appreciated Afghanistan’s neutrality during the Indian mutiny of 1857. In course of time, Dost Mohammad paved a way for a good relation that contributed to the recognition of Afghanistan as an independent country that serves as a buffer between the Russian and British Empires.

Death of Dost Mohammad

Death for Dost Mohammad came in 1863 after his forces successfully recaptured Herat. After his passing on June 9, 1863, he became known as the Amir-i-kabir or the Great Emir.

His son Shir Ali Khan succeeded him as Emir, but his other 26 children contested this succession and once again dragged the country back into internal strife just as Dost Mohammad witnessed before his rise.

Dost Mohammad’s failures displayed themselves in the civil war that followed his reign. He failed to introduce modern administrative organization and institutions that could function despite a succession crisis. He also failed to provide Afghanistan a stable state income to finance a well-armed and organized military. Failure in military reforms, however, stemmed also to the deep tribal tradition of Afghans. Power remained on personal basis rather than the state or nation. Only Dost Mohammad’s personality kept Afghanistan together, thus after his demise, the order he represent also faded.

Summing Up

Dost Mohammad established a dynasty that lasted until 1973. With his personality and ruthlessness he established order and made attempts to reform the country. However, deep traditionalism and tribalism hampered his attempts. His foreign policy garnered mix results. His initial policies led to a war that deposed him. Luckily for the Emir of Afghanistan, the British and Shoja did not fare better than him and found themselves in a path towards humiliation and death, thus he gained a second chance to rule Afghanistan. For the second time, he became more prudent in his foreign policy contributing to the maintenance of Afghanistan’s independence. Even though he reestablished order, he failed to create institutions in administration that could prevent another situation spiraling down towards anarchy. Dost Mohammad’s reign for all its successes and failures contributed to the formation of modern of Afghanistan.

See also:
First Anglo-Afghan War

Bibliography:

Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. “Dost Mohammad Khan.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed on March 18, 2020. URL: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Dost-Mohammad-Khan

“Dost Muhammad, Amir (1792 – 1863).” Conflict in Afghanistan: A Historical Encyclopedia. Edited by Frank Clements. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2003.

Dubrulle, Elizabeth. “Dost Mohammed (ca, 1793-1863).” Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia. Edited by Alexander Mikaberidze. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, LLC, 2011.