Jurchen Economy and the Rise of the Qing Dynasty

Ginseng – a root crop known for its health benefits especially in Asia became popular in the late 16th and early 17th century that it contributed to the fall of the Ming Dynasty and the rise of the Manchu Qing Dynasty.

Jurchen to Manchu to Qing

The Qing Dynasty ruled China from 1644 to 1911, but the Qing Emperors’ heritage traced back to a group of barbarians from Northeast of China called Jurchens or more popularly known as Manchus. They rose up as a formidable force after uniting under the leadership of the Nurhaci before finally defeating the powerful Ming Dynasty. Nurhaci on his part faced herculean challenges before uniting the Jurchens under a single state called Later Jin that later challenged the might of the Chinese Ming Dynasty.

Born in 1559, Nurhaci witnessed the chaotic division among the 3 major Jurchen tribes: Haixi, Yeren, and his Jianzhou. He lost his father and his grandfather in a battle amidst a succession crisis within the Jianzhou group. After being adopted by a Chinese general for possible political gains over the Jurchen, he studied and understood politics and Chinese military tactics which he used later in his life. In 1616, after several campaigns, he united the Jurchens founding Later Jin in 1616.

By 1618, Nurhachi undertook his grandest plan - to invade China. He, however, failed to see his dream realized as he passed away in 1626. Upon his death, he left a strong legacy transforming the pastoralist Jurchens into an organized and strong nation politically, militarily, and economically.

Jurchens and Manchuria

Manchuria laid northeast of China and served as the home of Nurhaci’s Jurchens. Mountains covered its north while plains on its south and west. Its climate split notoriously between sultry humid summers and extremely freezing winters. In this vast expanse, the Jurchens lived for centuries.

The Jurchens belonged to a people speaking a Tungusic language. In 1115, they went into the limelight of history when they established the Jin Dynasty rivaling the powerful Song Dynasty centered in Southern China. The rise of Genghis Khan, however, resulted in its collapse, and with the rise of Nurhaci did the Jurchen regained their strength to challenge the celestial kingdom. But until then, they lived as semi-nomads relying on herding, agriculture, hunting, and raiding.

In herding, Jurchens raised cattle, ox, pigs, and finally horses. From their livestock, they obtained dairy, leather, and on special occasions, meat. The amount of livestock measured the wealth of a Jurchen exemplifying the importance and value of the commodity. Horses, on the other hand, played an integral to Jurchen culture. They used the animal to watch over their livestock besides its obvious function as a transport. Moreover, they also sold this beast of burden at a high price to the Chinese and the Koreans. In 1406, they began to sell their horses to the Chinese in a special horse market in Kaiyuan for followed by another in Fushun in 1474 and then in Aiyang, Qinghe, and Kuandian. On the other hand, they sold their beast of burden to the Korean in markets in South Hamkyeong Province. Moreover, besides the special market, they also included horses in the list of tributes they presented by the Ming emperors exemplifying its significance to both cultures.

Jurchen hunting from his horse

Besides livestock, Jurchens also practiced agriculture, but on a limited scale only. With slave labor, they cultivated sorghum, millet, and soybeans in the region’s major rivers like the Amur and the Yalu which also provided fish to households.

Hunting laid as a major part of Jurchen culture and economy. They hunted for additional meat as well as high-valued animals such as the sable famous for its exquisite dark brown and black color and falcons, a popular bird used in hunting by Chinese and Korean nobility and royalty.

Jurchen craftsmanship also had its place. Besides metalsmiths and tanners makers of hats, belts, and other pieces of clothing made a living.

Lastly, Jurchens made a name for themselves as notorious raiders. With skills in archery that matched the Mongols, Jurchen marauders descended into Korean and Chinese villages in the border plundering stores, looting valuables, and taking prisoners. They sold their unlucky prisoners as slaves in markets or sent them to the fields as laborers. Despite the violence of the raids, the Jurchens, nevertheless, continued to trade with the Chinese and the Koreans.

Trade

Jurchens traded mainly with the Chinese and Koreans exporting luxury goods while importing vital and scarce resources. They also used their political relations with the Ming Chinese to push for their trade agenda.

To China and Korea, they sold their furs from sable, falcons suitable for hunting, horses they bred, and finally ginseng which grew wildly in Manchuria. Ginseng grew in popularity in China and Korea for its medical benefits. The ginseng trade grew to prominence earning its reputation as one of the 3 Treasures of Manchuria alongside sable fur and deer antlers. From their profits in their exports, the Jurchen imported necessities such as cattle, iron tools, slaves, silk, and salt.

Tribute missions of Jurchen tribes to the Ming court played also a key role in the trade between the 2 cultures. As Jurchen emissaries kowtowed to the Son of Heaven, they also sold their products in the markets of the capital. Hence, tribute missions served not only to maintain peace but also to cultivate economic ties.

Kyrgyz deliver a white horse as a tribute

Rise of Nurhaci

The rise of Qing founder Nurhaci exploited several external factors. Exploiting these factors, Nurhaci successfully built a war machine for his ambitions. A machine that gave rise to the Qing Dynasty.

For a century after 1550, the Jurchens thrived from increasing trade. The increase in Portuguese, Spanish, and, later, Dutch presence in India, Southeast Asia, and Japan fueled a rising demand for Chinese silk, tea, and porcelain. Silver from the mines of the Americas flooded the Asian market and trickled down to the Jurchens. The rise in affluence of Ming traders also raise the demands for luxurious Jurchens goods such as fur and ginseng. The ginseng trade between the Jurchen and the Chinese in particular flourished standing at an annual value of 2.5 million silver taels.

Taping into this rich market became a Jurchen lords focus and tribute missions surprisingly became in wide demand. Despite the political subservience the tribute missions connoted, practicality and profits trumped this view. Tribute missions, however, required an edict from Peking known as Chishu which every Jurchen tribe needed to cross the border and to enter the capital. By the end of the 16th century, the Haixi Jurchens held 1,000 of these edicts while Nurhaci’s Jianzhou Jurchens only had 500. Tribes then competed to obtain more edicts either through diplomacy or by force. Conquest of a rival tribe meant not only of political advancement but also eliminating a competitor. Thus, the ginseng trade grew into a lucrative trade that fueled competition among the Jurchens.

Nurhaci recognized the resources at his disposal. He exploited it for his advantage, financing his military ambitions. He established a monopoly on the trade of ginseng and sable. which earned him an annual income of 100,000 taels. This then went to fund Nurhaci's campaign of Jurchen unification.

In 1601, Nurhaci transformed the administrative as well as the military organization of the Jianzhou Jurchens. He instituted the Banner systems which became the basic administrative, military, and later economic unit of the Jurchens, then Later Jin, and finally the Qing. Economically, the banner system simplified and organized tax collection. The initial 4 banners grew to 8 in 1615. The reorganization made it easier to administer the Jurchens, command them in battle, and collect taxes more efficiently than before.

The rise of Nurhaci in the late 1500s also saw a massive influx of Chinese labor to Manchuria that altered the face of the Jurchen economy. Intensifying Jurchen raids in the Chinese frontiers in the 1590s increased the number of Chinese prisoners and defectors. Nurhaci exceptionally valued Chinese ironsmiths whom he hired to develop the Jurchen iron industry beginning with smelting iron ore to mining it in the mountains of Manchuria. The growth of the iron industry resulted in the production of new weapons capable of matching Chinese arms. This finally transformed the Jurchens into effective fighting forces that established the Qing Dynasty.

Summing Up

Ginseng trade along with other treasures of Manchuria funded the rise of Nurhaci and the Manchu Qing Dynasty. From the harsh climate of the plains and mountains of Manchuria, Nurchaci recognized and utilized his homeland’s resources to his advantage. From his earnings in these trades, he built an army that challenged the Mings. Despite passing away before the fall of the Ming’s, his successors continued his ambitions and prevailed in ruling over one of the most powerful countries in history.

Bibliography:
Websites:
Michael, Franz. “Nurhachi.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed on August 22, 2020. URL: https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Nurhaci

Ulhicun, Aisin Gioro and Jin Shi. “Manchuria from the Fall of the Yuan to the Rise of the Manchu State ( 1368-1636 ).” Ritsumeikan University. Accessed on August 22, 2020. URL: http://www.ritsumei.ac.jp/acd/cg/lt/rb/601/601PDF/aisin.pdf

Ebook:
Li, Shi. Political History of the Qing Dynasty. DeepLogic, 2019.

General References:
“Ginseng.” Encyclopedia of China: History and Culture. Edited by Dorothy Perkins. New York, New York: Routledge, 1999.

Tsai, Wei-Chieh. “Jurchen.” The Mongol Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia. Edited by Timothy May. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2017.

Book:

Rawski, Evelyn. Early Modern China and Northeast Asia.  New York, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015.