Prussian Reform Movement: Stein, Humboldt, Hardenberg

The 19th century dawned with turbulence as Europe reached a cross road between 2 paths – the continuation of the old order and transformation to the new order. The Kingdom of Prussia saw right into the eyes of the abyss that led to rise of reformist ministers. The Prussian Reform Movement placed the kingdom towards change.

Prussian Ancien Regime

Prussia rose to prominence in continental Europe after the numerous wars Frederick II waged to the detriment of others. Though he ruled in the spirit of Enlightenment, the aristocracy dominated by the Junkers controlled the Kingdom’s administration, economy and society through feudalism. After Frederick II’s reign, the Kingdom saw a rule through a cabinet of men favored by the King – with affection rather than talent as basis for inclusion. In the country side, manors manned by serfs tied to the Lords of the land littered the landscape, while in the cities, crafts and various trade fell to the monopoly and regulation of various guilds. This Ancien Regime rooted the Kingdom of Prussia.

Frederick II inspecting his lands and talking to potato growers

The year 1806, however, marked as a catastrophe for the Kingdom after the Prussian Kingdom. Its military lacking energy, talent, and skillful leadership suffered a military defeat in the twin battles of Jena-Auestedt in the hands of a product of the French Revolution - Napoleon Bonaparte. The following peace Treaty of Tilsit humiliated then Prussian King Frederick William III and tremendously burdened the Kingdom with heavy indemnities. Questions about the existence of the kingdom of Fredericks and Wilhelms clouded the population.

Prussian wounded and stragglers leaving the double battle by Richard Knötel.

The Napoleonic Wars and Revolutionary France’s triumph over Prussia undermined the existing Ancien Regime. This led to the argument that if Enlightenment reforms strengthened France to the point it dominated Europe, then same reforms in Prussia had the chance of rejuvenating the whole Kingdom and as Otto Hintze stated, “Reforms itself should be the means of liberation from the Napoleonic yoke.” Thus, liberals and believers of the Enlightenment emboldened by the sudden support of King Frederick William III gained momentum for a Prussia Reform Movement.

Wave of Reforms

Napoleon, Alexander I of Russia,
Queen Louise of Prussia, and Frederick William III
in Tilsit in 1807, painted by Nicolas Gosse

With the disasters from the front lines and the apparent success of French reforms base on the ideals of the Enlightenment, Prussian reformist gained the upper hand and the attention of the King. Reforms had been attempted, but the strong opposition of the nobility hampered its implementation until the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt. Under the leadership of different minister, Prussia sought to reshape itself to survive and expel the “Napoleonic yoke.”

Trickles have been made prior, especially during the initial years after the ascension of King Frederick William III in 1797. Despite the King’s desire for reform, he display insecurity and indecisiveness mainly because of fears of a Revolution similar to the French that saw King Louis XVI guillotined.

Optimism of reforms remained high with Frederick William III. In 1799, Minister Karl Gustav von Struensee bragged to a French diplomat:

“The creative revolution was made in France from below; in Prussia it will be made slowly and from above. The King is a democrat in his fashion. He is ceaselessly working towards curtailing the privileges of the nobility… In a few years there will be no privileged class left in Prussia.”

Strides had been made to keep the nobility in check. On October 13, 1798, Frederick William III received a proposal for the nobles to pay land taxes and in 1799 another came with the aim of abolition of exemptions in excise and custom taxes alongside the introduction of a purchase tax. These proposals never saw the light of day, but some found success, such as the gradual liberalization of domestic trade as well as the steady emancipation of serfs in the Crown Lands from 1797 to 1805.

Karl von Stein Reforms

Karl von Stein

On September 1807, King Frederick William III under the pressure of the French appointed Heinrich Friedrich Karl von Stein as chief minister. Despite being appointed with the help of the French, Stein aimed to enact reforms with the goal of expelling the French and building the foundations of a united Germany. From his estate in Nassau, Stein went to Memel where the King resided after French troops occupied the capital Berlin and from there, he began his work.

The King knew Stein well who had already served in his government and knew him as a reformer with a frankness and boldness he feared for being too much. Stein came from a modest family of Imperial Knights and an ardent supporter of Enlightenment ideas as well as German nationalism. From 1804 to 1807, he served as Minister of Economic Affairs and oversaw the gradual liberalization of domestic trade. He also proposed the imposition of income tax which have seen early trials in Great Britain and France.

Stein aimed to promote the idea of citizenship in Prussia. He wanted the people to be citizens dedicated to the protection and development of the Kingdom. He desired that his policies to lay the foundation for the Prussian people to contribute to the future unification of Germany. He wanted to promote freedom followed by greater participation in government which he called for with his memorandum issued in his estate in Nassau in 1807.

On October 9, 1807 he successfully had the King sign the edict On the Facilitation of Property Ownership, the Free Use of Land, and the Personal Condition of Peasant – a hallmark in his tenure as chief minister and the Prussian Reform Movement. In its preamble, it declared “personal condition of the agricultural laborer especially interfere with our benevolent purpose and disable a great force which might be applied to the restoration of cultivation.” It freed the Prussians to take any trade they deemed necessary for their well-being and freed the nobles to sell their lands and all Prussians to buy land. Finally, on its 12th article, it declared that on the feast of St. Martin on November 10, “all serfdom shall cease throughout our whole realm… there shall be only free persons.” Of course, the nobility opposed the law, but they would obey if the obligations of the nobility towards the serfs were to be abolished as well. On the other hand, many questions loomed over the new freed serfs such as: how would the newly free serfs acquire land to till and live? What were their rights after their former lords had been freed from obligation? The answering of this question directed the perception of the reform movement.

Frontispiece of the
October 1807 edict

Stein moved forward with his administrative reforms establishing provincial and city councils to promote participation from locals and finally a key change in the matter of administration of the King. In 1808, he obtained the King’s signature for the Edict Concerning the Changed Constitution of the Supreme Administrative Organs of the Prussian Monarchy. This placed the administration of the Kingdom in a hands of a state council of 5 ministers each holding an office responsible for a certain field. This marked a shift of collective leadership from a cabinet composed of the King’s favorites to a body of able and skilled men in their specific fields. Another characteristic of the state council, it divided the minister based on task (economic affairs, foreign policy, etc.) rather than geographical division or provincial. The edict empowered the bureaucracy and as Otto Hintze said, “The absolute monarchy was transformed into a bureaucratic monarchy.”

In 1808, Stein sacked by the King after an overwhelmingly furious pressure from France brought by the Prussian chief minister’s involvement to incite a war against Emperor Napoleon. Despite Stein’s short 14-month tenure as chief minister, he enacted profound reforms that impacted in the development of the Kingdom.

Humboldt’s Educational Reform

Wilhelm von Humboldt

In 1808, before the fall of Stein as chief minister, he told to King Frederick William III a recommendation for Wilhelm Humboldt, whom he had little to no contact, to stage the reformation of the Prussian education system.  Humboldt influenced by different ideas formulated an education system aimed in developing the minds of all Prussian towards goal of unifying Germany, similar to Stein’s. He worked in improving the schools until his resignation in 1810.

Humbolt realized several ideas he came up from other contemporary thinkers such as Johann Fichte and Johann Pestalozzi. These ideas included the establishment of a national school for all citizens of the Kingdom and the promotion of intellectual freedom rather than mechanical memorization. He aimed for the development of the mindset of the people towards rationality and view themselves as part of the Kingdom’s destiny as well as that of a future united Germany. Like Stein, through schools he wanted Prussians to change from mere subjects to responsible and industrious citizens.

In his part, Humboldt enacted numerous educational reforms. He abolished privileged and private as well as professional or highly specialized schools. He established a 3 tier education levels – primary, higher school/gymnasiums, and university – levels that persisted to this day. He trained teachers to man these schools and promoted meritocracy among their ranks making sure that only the qualified taught especially in the universities. He provided complete financial support of schools, yet condemned state intervention in research and teaching. Finally, in 1810 he supported the establishment of the Frederick William University (later known as the Humboldt University of Berlin) that produced individuals that indeed contributed to the establishment and development of Germany such as Otto von Bismarck, Karl Marx, and Rudolf Virchow.

Friedrich Wilhelm University

Humboldt used the latest liberal and Enlightenment ideas to formulate his policies and great made strides in the educational reform of Prussia. His life as minister, however, came at an end in 1810 after disagreements with the new State Chancellor Karl August von Hardenburg.

Hardenberg Chancellery

Karl August von Hardenberg

Karl von Hardenberg served as State Chancellor from 1810 to 1822. After his long history of service to various German states, he ended up with the Prussian Kings. Known as a more moderate voice than Stein, he enacted reforms that created profound impact to the Germanic Kingdom. After the fall of Napoleon, winds of reform change along with attitude towards it.

Hardenberg, like Stein, came from the privilege class not native of Prussia but from Hanover. He had a long service as an official to various German states until landing service to Berlin. In 1806, he served as a diplomat before being forced out by French pressure to retire.

Hardenberg offered a milder face of reform than the frank and blunt Stein. Many known him as a moderate reformer who knew how to compromise. With his subtler attitude, the King trusted him very much and when the chance came in 1810, the monarch brought him back and out of retirement. In addition, the King bestowed him the position of state chancellor which was not bestowed to his predecessors.

Upon Hardenberg’s rise, ministers after Stein like Friedrich Ferdinand Alexander zu Dohna-Scholobitten and Karl von Stein zum Altenstein’s maintained the reforms but failed to enact new major ones. Hardenberg had a different application of his Enlightenment ideas. Contrary to Stein’s liberal ideas focused in increasing participation of citizens, Hardenberg believed in extending the economic freedoms of the citizens. For him, economic freedom allows the Prussians to serve their role with ease.

Hardenberg came in during a time of financial distress. Debt drowned the kingdom, from 53 million Gulden in 1806 to 100 million in 1810. Furthermore, Prussia had to meet indemnity payments to France as imposed by the Treaty of Tilsit. Preparation for possible conflicts also placed the Kingdom’s coffers in further strain. Thus, Hardenberg enacted laws to improve the Kingdom’s economic productivity and revenue.

The 1810 Prussian Finance Edict opened the series of Hardenberg’s economic reforms. It called for the creation of a new land registry for the purpose of a more accurate land tax collection and for the selling of crown lands as well as for the nationalization and selling of religious estates.

The 1811 Prussian Regulation Edict aimed to provide a framework for the conversion of manorial lands to peasant free holds serving as a supplement to the 1807 edict that abolished serfdom. It stipulated the percent of lands to be given to the Lords by the peasants as compensation for the obligations made by the nobility prior to the emancipation. It also pointed out the compensation to be made by peasants for the lands they acquired.

Prussian Law of Freedom of Trade Edict published in 1811 weakened the economic influence of the guilds. It ushered in the Gewerbefreiheit or economic freedom where guild monopolies disappeared and any men acquired the freedom to enter in any trade they wished in exchange for payment of a trade tax.  Labor and business disputes transferred from guild courts to the police. Workers had the freedom to leave work and earn a certification of his skill – an early version of a certificate of employment. It also liberalized fee and wages. It displayed a step towards the idea of Laissez-faire.

Edict Concerning the Civil Status of the Jews in the Prussian State of 1812 welcomed the naturalization of Jews. Jews had been both renowned and reviled for their financial and commercial skills as well as their craftsmanship. Discrimination towards them persisted for centuries and made them unwanted. The 1812 Edict, however, moved to assimilate this sector to the Prussian state. It granted civil rights to naturalized Jews and gave them rights to own property, movement, and trade. It abolished discriminatory special taxes. Also, it made them eligible for conscription. The act clearly aimed allow Jews to have a stake in the affairs of the country and a new source of manpower and skills for the Kingdom.

Hardenberg continued his reforms as well as focus in the war to defeat Napoleon. By 1815, Napoleon met his final demise in Waterloo and the conservatives and reactionaries reverted their attention to internal affairs. Opposition towards reforms regained strengthened.

Conservative Resurgence

As the Congress of Vienna redrew the landscape of Europe, it also marked the formation of a Holy Alliance to push back liberal and Enlightenment reforms. Hardenberg, known for his moderation in reforms, felt the pressure and took a step back from some of the reforms.

For instance, he took a step back in the issue of increasing peasant ownership of lands amending the 1811 Edict regarding. The 1816 Edict added various categories to the definition of peasant holdings, such as the number of laborers and domestic animals that worked the field. In such a way, landowning aristocrats devoured small peasant farms. To this end, many peasant either lose their lands or relegated to a mere agricultural laborer or tenant farmers.

Growing old, Hardenberg further weakened his resolve to impose reforms. In 1819, he signed up Prussia to the Carlsbad Decrees that stifled liberalism and nationalism. Despite the return of conservatism, aspects of the Prussian reforms remained. Guilds failed to regain their monopoly. Prussian education reforms continued to foster great minds in various fields. Though little, Prussia made small strides to towards modernity.

Summing Up

Prussian Reform Movement took roots from the spread of Enlightenment ideas. And from a crisis, the Kingdom found itself in need of modernization to be at par with its enemy. Reformist forces made the best out of the situation to forward their agenda. However, with the cause of their momentum gone, their battle turned downhill. Nonetheless, in hindsight, many of the steps they made brought Prussia a step towards modernization.

Ideas of a benevolent absolute monarch divided the courts across Europe. In Prussia, Frederick the Great ushered a liberal autocracy and made a profound impact in the image of ideal leadership. Frederick William III hoped to follow in that footstep, but faced tough resistance from the privileged class.

With the defeat in Jena-Auerstedt, the need to reform the country in line with the changes that France did gave power to reformist. Actions of men such as Karl von Stein erased the institution of serfdom in Prussia forever. Humboldt strived to create a national education system aimed to empower the citizens of Prussia with skills and intellect needed for the future. Hardenberg furthered economic liberalization by abolishing the privileges of guilds and planting the seeds of laissez-faire in Prussia.

Despite the reassertion of conservatism in Prussia, containing liberal reforms failed. In fact, in contributed to the economic and industrial rise of Prussia and Germany as a whole. For their long term effects, the Prussian Reform Movement earned its place as milestone in the rise of liberalism and in the epic story of unification of Germany.

Bibliography:

Books:

Dwyer, Philip. The Rise of Prussia, 1700 - 1830. New York, New York: Routledge, 2000.

Sheehan, James. German History. New York, New York: Oxford University Press, 1989.

Websites:

von Stein, Karl. "Karl Baron vom und zum Stein, Nassau Memorandum on Administrative Reform in Prussia (June 1807)." GHDI. Accessed on March 8, 2020. URL: http://ghdi.ghi-dc.org/sub_doclist.cfm?startrow=11&sub_id=316&section_id=8 

__________. "The Prussian "October Edict" of 1807, signed by King Frederick William III, Minister Karl Baron vom und zum Stein, and Others (October 9, 1807)". GHDI. Accessed on March 8, 2020. URL: http://ghdi.ghi-dc.org/sub_document.cfm?document_id=3613 

von Hardenberg, Karl August. "The Prussian Regulation Edict of 1811, signed by King Frederick William III, State Chancellor Hardenberg, and Justice Minister Kircheisen (September 14, 1811)." GHDI. Accessed on March 8, 2020. URL: http://ghdi.ghi-dc.org/sub_document.cfm?document_id=3615 

________________________. "The Prussian Law on Freedom of Trade, signed by State Chancellor Hardenberg and King Frederick William III (September 7, 1811)," GHDI. Accessed on March 8, 2020. URL: http://ghdi.ghi-dc.org/sub_document.cfm?document_id=3555 

________________________. "Frederick William III, King of Prussia, "Edict Concerning the Civil Status of the Jews in the Prussian State" (March 11, 1812)." GHDI. Accessed on March 8, 2020. URL: http://ghdi.ghi-dc.org/sub_document_s.cfm?document_id=3650