Heraclitus said “There is nothing permanent except change” and it applies to life at the smallest and to society at the largest. When faced with challenges and difficulties, a change in ways seemed the correct path, but the question that follows: how to change or what to change? This question represented the Self-Strengthening Movement and its quest for the industrialization of China under the Qing Dynasty.
An Empire in Decline
The arrival of the 19th century also meant a trial for the Qing Dynasty. Discontent among foreign merchants grew which resulted in an unholy trade that ruined Chinese society, health, and economy. Reaction to this diabolic trade led instead to a war that deteriorated the situation further resulting in a period known as the Century of Humiliation.
A combination of external and internal pressure brought about the decline of the Qing Dynasty. Issues in trade, in particular, dissatisfaction over the setup of the Canton trade system and the trade balance between China and Great Britain, culminating in the rise of the opium trade. British-led Opium export to China wreaked havoc in Chinese society prompting a crackdown by Beijing led by Commissioner Lin Zexu. The curbing of the trade, however, resulted in the Opium wars that ended with unequal treaties that humiliated the country. This humiliation exposed China’s backwardness and the Qing Dynasty’s weakness.
The 1850s further descended the Qing court into turmoil with news of several rebellions in central China. Corruption seeped into the local administration that prevented the delivery of satisfactory service to the Chinese people. Furthermore, a rise in population caused the growing competition for employment and land as well as overstretching of government oversight that brought further discontent. This discontent exploded in great violence with the Taiping Rebellion being the largest and longest of all the rebellions from 1850 to 1864. The rebellions intensified and the burden in the treasury disrupted the economy and demoralized the military to the point that the days of the Qing seemed numbered.
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| Lin Zexu and Destruction of Opium |
Stable Foundation
The Tongzhi Restoration that began in 1861 provided a fresh and stable political climate fit for reform. From a change in political leadership, internal security improved and new officials rose up the ranks. These officials along with realization among the scholars went to the forefront of the Self-Strengthening Movement.
In hindsight, the Tongzhi Restoration seemed to be an eye in the middle of a storm. A period of tranquility and peace in contrast to the 1850s that saw the Opium Wars and several rebellions tremendously weakened China. It witnessed a revitalization amidst a decline that several dynasties before also experience.
The Restoration started in 1861 with the death of the Xianfeng Emperor leaving behind the child Tongzhi Emperor to sit in the dragon throne. The Empire’s state affairs fell to an 8-member regency council to rule in the young sovereign’s stead until he reaches the majority. However, in the event that came to be known as the Xinyou Coup, the Emperor’s biological mother, the later Empress Dowager Cixi, his stepmother Empress Chen, alongside several high-ranking officials and royal family members overthrew the regency council and took power. The Empress Dowagers along with Prince Gong determined to reverse China’s fortune with modernization.
They then worked to reorganize both external and internal affairs. For foreign affairs, they set up the Zongli Yamen or the Office of the General Affairs headed by Prince Gong and tasked with the handling of relations with the foreign powers. For domestic affairs and security, the regents crushed the numerous uprisings that ruined the central plains of China. The most bloody and extensive rebellion, the Taiping Rebellion, saw its end in 1864. The Qing armies also fought several more successful pacification campaigns against other rebellions in the 1870s. In the end, the conflict caused the death of 20 to 30 million which ironically relieved the overpopulation that contributed to the socioeconomic causes of the uprisings. The rebellions also resulted in the greater autonomy of local gentries for security as seen with the establishment of tuanlian or village defense militias funded by the new linjin tax.
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| Empress Dowager Cixi |
A Realization
With the improvement in national politics and security, the scent of change smelled in the air, and scholars and officials took the opportunity. Officials and intellectuals wanted to reverse China’s fortunes. They realized the need to adopt modern western technology but aligned this learning to the Confucian values and traditions of the Empire. Defense of the country meant maintaining Qing’s mandate to rule, but so as protection of Confucian values.
Among officials, men who fought to crush the rebellion rose up in the ranks and supported the need for the adoption of the latest science and technology for the Empire’s survival. They understood the need and effectiveness of a modern military for both internal and external security. Men such as Zeng Guofan and Li Honzhang who fought the Taiping as well as Zhang Zhidong and Zuo Zongtang called for the radical modernization of the education system, industries, and most importantly the military. Alongside officials, scholars and intellectuals also joined the call for reforms. Scholars possessed tremendous respect and served as the epitome of wisdom greatly valued in Confucianism. Either they served as officials themselves or become trusted advisors such as Wei Yuan, an adviser to Lin Zexu who led the crackdown against opium sparking the First Opium War, promoted the concept of “using barbarians to control barbarians.” He stated:
“There are two methods of attacking the barbarians, namely, to stimulate countries unfriendly to the barbarians to make an attack on them, and to learn the superior skills of the barbarians in order to control them.”
Feng Guifen, an adviser to Li Honzhang, wrote an essay in 1860 calling for “self-strengthening” after analyzing the superiority of the western countries and concluding:
“In my opinion, if we cannot make ourselves strong (Ziqiang) but merely presume on cunning and deceit, it will be just enough to incur failure. Only one sentence of Wei Yuan is correct: ‘Learn the strong techniques of the barbarians in order to control them...”
Feng called for the establishment of translation schools and institutions to allow faster adoption and understanding of western sciences, technology, and know-how.
The collaboration between officials and scholars gave birth to the Self-Strengthening Movement or Ziqiang Movement. They believed in the adoption of practical western technology and ways but maintaining ancient Chinese traditions alive. An idea encapsulated in the slogan “Chinese Learning as the Base, Western Studies for Use.” It served as the battle cry similar to Japan’s Fukoku Kyohei “Rich Country, Strong Army.”
See also:
Bibliography:
Books:
Fairbank, John King. China: A New History. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2006.
Robert, J.A.G. A History of China. New York, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.
Teng, Ssu-yu & John King Fairbank. China's response to the West: A Documentary Survey, 1839 - 1923. Forge Village, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1954.
Wright, David Curtis. The History of China. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO,LLC, 2011.
Websites:
Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. "Anqing." Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed on October 11, 2020. URL: https://www.britannica.com/place/Anqing
_____________________________. "Jiangnan Arsenal." Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed on October 11, 2020. URL: https://www.britannica.com/topic/Jiangnan-Arsenal
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