The Lion of the North, as many called Gustavus Adolphus, started his reign at a young age and oversaw war, reform, and cooperation. All led to the establishment of Sweden as a Baltic superpower.
Military Build-Up
Gustavus Adolphus always faced a threat of war. Besides this, he wanted
Sweden to be a powerful country to stand for its interest. The Thirty Years’
War became not only Gustavus’ desired theater to show Sweden’s might, but also
a political and economic opportunity for his Kingdom. Thus, military reforms became a major chapter of his reign.
By the 1620s, Gustavus Adolphus aimed to establish an army with Swedish units at its core. In a time when mercenaries dominated the battlefield, he reduced this reliance to build an army of Sweden for Sweden. Inspired by the innovations of his childhood idol Maurice of Nassau, the Prince of Orange, Gustavus set out forging a revolutionary military force.
He built up a national army through conscription. For Gustavus, mercenaries came with a high cost and high risk. Common problems with mercenaries included questions of loyalty, discipline, and effectiveness. For this, the King wanted to reduce reliance on these soldiers-for-hire and place a conscripted Swedish soldier at the center. Financially speaking, paying and training a peasant cost less than a mercenary. For this, in collaboration with Axel Oxenstierna, the reforms in the local administration including the formation of local conscription councils. These councils choose the men to join the provincial regiment. Gustavus understood the pains of conscriptions and to maintain support for it he asked for the Riksdag’s approval for the number of men to be levied for the army. The Riksdag approved and conscription resulted in the build-up of a 40,000-man army.
Following successful recruitment, Gustavus reformed the military’s doctrine and weaponry. In this, he hired officers who served under Maurice of Nassau as advisors. With limitations in manpower, he compensated by developing the army’s mobility and speed. Instead of the rigid tercio formation developed by Gonzalo Fernandez de Cordoba, he adopted the linear formations. Instead of squares, soldiers lined up to fire in salvo, a famous formation that defined battles in the 18th century. Moreover, he also divided the regiments into smaller and faster brigades. He envisioned the brigades as maneuverable units capable of reacting faster than the conventional tercio. His trust in maneuverability later inspired Napoleon Bonaparte with his corps system with its effectivity epitomized in the Battle of Austerlitz in 1805. Beyond mobile units, Gustavus also developed light horse-drawn artillery capable of moving around in the battle in a matter of minutes. He also armed his soldiers with lighter rifles that no longer need a stand to fire. Moreover, Gustavus also recruited Finnish light cavalry called Hakkapeliita to strike and weaken the positions of the enemy with accuracy and speed. Thus, the word light became a widely used word to define Gustavus’ army.
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| Hakkapeliita |
With all the innovations he made, Gustavus understood the importance of keeping morale high. For this, he showed tremendous respect to his soldiers despite showing equal toughness in the discipline. He lived simple and on the battlefield, he fought with his men. He even led the charge to the enemy and faced dangers head-on. His hands-on leadership later turned him into a legend.
Gustavus Adolphus reshaped the Swedish military into an unconventional military force. He abandoned heavy reliance on mercenaries and built a national army. He developed this national army into a light, mobile, and fast-moving military he viewed to be effective against the rigid mercenary armies of Europe. Under his charismatic leadership, he led this army into one of Europe's most bloody conflicts – the Thirty Years’ War.
Gustavus Adolphus and the Thirty Years’ War
King Gustav II of Sweden reigned amidst the bloody Thirty Years’ War in
continental Europe. He weighed on his reasons and finally decided to engage.
With his reformed military, he set out to fight for his chosen cause and
introduced the power of Sweden.
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| The Battle of Rocroi, by Augusto Ferrer-Dalmau |
Many reasons pushed Gustavus Adolphus to enter the Thirty Years’ War stemming from religious, economic, as well as political aspects. The Thirty Years’ War pitted the Catholic Holy Roman Empire against the various Protestant German States. Gustav dreaded the fall of the German Protestant states as this threatened the existence of the Swedish protestant church in long term. As a religious man, he viewed the war as a crusade against oppression and persecution of the Catholic Holy Roman Empire. On the other hand, economically, he also worried about the threat to Sweden’s major partner and a fellow Protestant state – the Dutch Republic. He also viewed the war as a means to gain new territory, especially along the Baltic coast. He understood the tremendous value of taxes and duties in lands on the continent. Furthermore, he received handsome subsidies from the greatest rival of the Holy Roman Empire the Kingdom of France. Lastly, besides a threat to the Church, he dreaded the Holy Roman Empire together with Poland, 2 Catholic kingdoms, building up a navy in the Baltic Sea. He saw the threat to Sweden’s position as well as on his throne as Poland’s king might re-ignite their claim to the Swedish throne. With the economic opportunities and religious as well as political threats, Gustavus knew the side to take.
With the case at hand, Gustavus then waited for the most opportune time to enter. He observed Denmark’s intervention to the war and witnessed his Kingdom’s rival in the east defeated. He gave hints though on a possibility of bigger Swedish participation in the conflict in 1628. He consented to surprising cooperation with Sweden’s nemesis Denmark to form an intervention force to relieve the besieged Protestant city of Stralsund in Pomerania. In 1629, the Truce of Altmark allowed Gustavus to mobilize his entire military to finally enter the Thirty Years’ war.
In 1630, Riksdag discussed Sweden’s involvement to the Thirty Years’ War. In end, the body approved the King’s decision to engage and Gustavus on his part made a farewell speech to his people like a father bidding farewell to his children. He said:
“And as usually happens, the pitcher is carried to the well till it finally breaks, so it may also go with me. After having in many dangers for my country’s welfare shed my blood, though hitherto by God’s gracious protection my life has been spared, yet finally, I may have to yield it. Therefore, I would commend you all to God’s gracious care, and pray that after this toilsome life we may meet together in the heavenly and eternal life.”
In June 1630, he personally led the Swedish expeditionary force of 16,000 men to fight in the war. They landed in Peenemunde and set up headquarters in Pomerania’s capital Stettin. Gustavus Adolphus kept his soldiers disciplined with a strictly implemented Articles of War. Upon landing, Gustavus had a series of objectives in his mind to accomplish. First, he planned to liberate the Southern German The Protestant States from the imperial yolk. Second, he wanted to convince the Protestant German states to form the Corpus Evangelicorum or a Protestant League. Third, he desired for indemnity collection to pay for the war cost with interest. He, however, met mistrust and suspicion from the German Protestant princes. Instead of being viewed as liberators, many Princes saw the Swedes as another conquering power. Rumors of Gustavus Adolphus seeking the position of the Holy Roman Empire also rang in the air despite a lack of concrete evidence. The mistrust made George William of Brandenburg, Gustavus’ brother-in-law, to refuse passage to the Swedish army destined to the besieged Protestant city of Magdeburg. This refusal led to the destruction of Magdeburg in the hands of the imperial army.
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| Sacking of Magdeburg, 1631 |
For about a year, Gustavus camped in Pomerania while making diplomatic headways. In spring 1631, he secured French assurances cementing the Franco-Swedish alliance under the Treaty of Bärwalde. He then received a request for assistance from the Elector of Saxony John George I who sought Swedish aid after imperial forces commander the Count of Tilly demanded his army’s disbandment.
Gustavus marched his forces to Saxony and joined forces with John George I. In September 1631, together they faced the imperial army near Leipzig in the fields of Breitenfeld. In the battle, Gustavus unleashed the effectivity of his reformed military force and heralded the dawn of Swedish power. He won strings of victories earning the epithet of Lion of the North. By December 1631, the Swedish forces secured Mainz. Despite victories, his face soured over the selfishness of the Protestant German princes. He realized the lack of unity and greed of the German princes abandoning his hopes for a Protestant League. He only then desired territorial concessions, especially Pomerania.
On the other hand, German princes continued to mistrust Gustavus Adolphus. The Swedish King had rewarded occupied German lands to distinguished supporters and commanders. Moreover, they disgust over Gustavus' treatment of them like some petty feudal lords. Despite the differences and suspicions, Gustavus continued to work with German princes.
In 1632, the Swedish monarch targeted the capture of the capital of the Holy Roman Empire – Vienna. However, before proceeding to the majestic city, he must capture Bavaria. The whole year then focused in a campaign in Southern Germany. By May 1632, Swedish forces captured Munich. However, he soon received news that the city of Nuremberg in his north faced capture in the hands of the talented mercenary commander of the Holy Roman Empire Albrecht von Wallenstein. He once again met the man who defeated him in 1629 in the Battle of Stuhm. He then marched north and faced the Imperial army in the fields of Lützen on November 6, 1632.
The Battle of Lützen entered military lore as Gustavus Adolphus’ last great battle. In the heat of battle Gustavus accidentally separated with his soldiers. He stumbled upon imperial soldiers and fell from his horse. Worst, he wore no armor as his wound irritate him when wearing one. Imperial soldiers then demanded his identity to which he answered proudly exclaimed, “I am the King of Sweden.” The answer earned the Lion of the North a bullet in the head.
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| Battle of Lutzen |
Aftermath
The Battle of Lützen secured a Protestant victory at the cost of the
life of one of Sweden’s most illustrious leaders. The news saddened the Kingdom
and gave worries to the future. Gustavus’ daughter Christina still a minor
succeeded as monarch and a regency council headed by Axel Oxenstierna presided
over state affairs. The smooth running of the country even under the regency
showed the effectiveness of the government reforms launched during Gustavus’
reign. Furthermore, Sweden by the end of the Thirty Years’ War stood as an
Empire that lasted until 1721.
Summing Up
Gustavus Adolphus lived an epic life. From a kingdom bogged down in
political tensions, diplomatic crisis, and terrible wars, he luckily partnered
with a talented Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna to turn the tables. They made peace
with neighboring countries with most of Sweden had an advantage. They established
a spirit of cooperation ripe for reform. They reorganized the government that
mirrored modern governments and promoted meritocracy and initiative. They
modernized the military that showed its capability in the battlefields of
Europe in the Thirty Years’ War. His tragic death in the fields of Lützen
turned Gustavus Adolphus into a legend. His reign marked the beginning of one
of Sweden’s most glorious period.
See also:
Bibliography:
Websites:
“Gustavus II,” Encyclopedia of World Biography. Encyclopedia.com. Accessed on August 11, 2020. URL: https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/history/scandinavian-history-biographies/gustavus-ii
Roberts, Michael. “Gustavus Adolphus.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed on September 5, 2020. URL: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Gustav-II-Adolf/Entrance-into-the-Thirty-Years-War
Books:
Grimberg, Carl. A History of Sweden. Translated by C.W. Foss. Rock Island, Illinois, Augustana Book Concern, 1935.
Andersson, Ingvar. A History of Sweden. Translated by Carolyn Hannay. New York, New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1968.
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