Empress Irene: the Woman that Built the Holy Roman Empire

In 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne as Imperator Romanus – Emperor of Rome. Leo’s decision to crown a new Roman Emperor despite one already existing in Constantinople stemmed from the fact that the holder of this title in the east was a woman – Irene of Athens. But who was this female Emperor who ruled one of the most powerful and prestigious Empires in the Middle Ages?

Woodcut Illustration of Empress Irene (in the left) and Charlemagne (in the right), from Penn Provenance Project, CC by 2.0

Early Life

Irene traced her roots in Athens under the Byzantine Hellas Theme. Born in 752, she came from a family of the noble Greek family of Sarantapechos. She became an orphan, but luckily her uncle or cousin Constantine Sarantapechos took care of her and she grew up popularly beautiful as well as ambitious, cunning, and pious.

Irene married Byzantine Emperor Leo IV the Khazar on December 17, 768, and gave birth to their son Constantine on January 14, 771. With her influence, Leo stood moderately on the issue that dominated politics and religion during that time – Iconoclasm. Iconoclasm or the Iconoclastic Controversy rooted from the 3rd Commandment “Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image” and other Old Testament stories such as Moses and the Golden Calf. The conflict between those who supported the veneration of images of Christ as well as saints called Iconophiles or Iconodules and those who rejected such celebration known as Iconoclast erupted in 730 during the reign of Emperor Leo III that affected politics and diplomacy. Irene, coming from Athens in Greece, supported the Iconophiles that prevailed over the clergy, western regions of the Empire, and women. Leo lightly treaded the schism until 780 when he suddenly joined the camp of Iconoclast and began a persecution against those who supported icons. According to legend, Leo discovered an icon beneath Irene’s pillow. He had her locked up and began a persecution of Iconodules.

Leo IV (in the left)

Regency during Constantine VI

In September 780, Irene’s husband, Emperor Leo IV, passed away paving the way for the succession of their 10-year-old son Constantine VI. Irene allegedly poisoned Leo, possibly for his persecution of the Iconophile faction.

As regent, she veered away from the nobility and towards eunuchs whom she appointed in various civil and military positions. Her favorite, Stauracius, proved to be a capable military commander. Stauracius initially repelled Muslim attacks, but a betrayal from a jealous general derailed his success forcing Irene to negotiate and pay tribute to Baghdad. Nevertheless, Stauracius continued to serve in the army restoring Byzantine control of Greece, a military achievement that Irene used to strengthen her grip on power.

Her regency saw the crushing of a conspiracy by Iconoclasts to usurp the throne for Irene’s brother-in-law and half-brother of Leo, Nicephorus. Irene countered this threat by purging the military of Iconoclast elements and exiling the brothers of the late Emperor making them take monastic vows, thus disqualifying them from becoming Emperors.

Irene hoped to put an end to the Iconoclastic Controversy once and for all. To do this, she had to control the powerful position of Patriarch of Constantinople and call for an Ecumenical Council. An opportunity presented itself with the death of the Iconoclast Patriarch Paul IV. She then has her ally Tarasios elected as Patriarch and convened at the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople on May 31, 786 a council of Bishops from the whole Empire. Christendom awaited news of the result of the council as both Eastern Orthodox churches as well as the Papacy sent delegates to the conference. However, Irene’s son Constantine VI took the Iconoclast cause and instigated the remaining Iconoclast army units to interrupt the proceedings. This prevented a definitive conclusion to the controversy temporarily. Irene and Tarasios understood the need to take control of the army, to purge its Iconoclast elements before putting an end to the controversy that caused political instability within the Empire.

Patriarch Tarasios

Purge the military she did in a subtle way. In the east, the Abbasid Caliphate restarted its territorial expansion. When the crisis appeared, Irene saw an opportunity. She transferred Iconoclast units of the army east to fight the Abbasids and placed the security of the capital in the hands of Iconophile troops. When the Iconoclast troops arrived at their destinations in the east, Irene’s soldiers had them disarmed and sent back to their homes. With the capital safe and the Iconoclast disarming and dispersing, she then convened another Ecumenical Council this time in Nicaea on September 13, 787. After a month of deliberation, finally, after more than 50 years, the controversy ended with a defeat for Iconoclast and the revival of veneration of icons. In celebration of these achievements, many paralleled Irene and Constantine VI to the late Roman mother and son Helena and Constantine I.

End of the Regency

As Constantine grew up to adulthood, so as his resentment of Irene. Irene refused to show any intention of stepping down from power, ending the regency, and allowing Constantine’s direct rule. The young Constantine then gambled and plotted to overthrow her mother from power.  

After Irene derailed the plot in 790, she demanded that official documents address her first rather than her son – a blatant display of seniority and power over the rightful Emperor. This, however, backfired as Irene overstepped her assertiveness causing another plot against her regime. She foiled Constantine’s plot placed her son in captivity and demanded swears of loyalty from officials and the military. However, Iconoclast themes in Anatolia refused and rose up in revolt aiming to overthrow the regency and establish Constantine’s direct rule. The opposition led to the end of the regency and Irene’s banishment from the court and confinement to the Eleutherios Palace.

Within 2 years, however, she managed to return to court and took the position of co-ruler. Constantine proved to be a luckless military leader losing against the Bulgar in April 791 and then against the Muslims in October. His defeats made him unpopular and with his back against the wall, decided to recall and forgive his mother. Irene made a comeback in Constantinople with vengeance in mind.

During the co-rulership, another conspiracy emerged plotted by Irene’s brother-in-law Nicephorus. Apparently, Nicephorus and his brothers continued to plot their political comeback despite their internment in monasteries. This time Irene decisively responded. She had Nicephorus blinded and his 4 other brother-in-laws muted – political mutilation that ultimately bared them from taking any positions of power.

In January 795, a scandalous affair rocked the Eastern Roman Empire which became known as the Moechian Controversy or Adulterous Controversy. Emperor Constantine VI stripped his Empress Maria of Amnia of her title and banished her to a convent. A few months later on October 7, 796, he married Theodote, a lady-in-waiting, resulting in a son. The Patriarch Tarasios only approved the union under coercion, nevertheless, many monks protested his decision to sanction marriage. Constantine then purged the clergy and the government of those who opposed his new marriage. Many found themselves imprisoned and exiled. Irene said to have encouraged the marriage to stir up opposition against Constantine. She then used the marriage scandal to rally support in her plot to overthrow her son. When Constantine marched east to fight the Muslims, Irene staged her coup. News about the conspiracy reached Constantine, but instead of returning to the capital to fight for his throne, he fled east – the bastion of Iconoclasts and his supporters. Before he reached safety though, Irene’s troops captured him and on August 15, 797 brought him to Irene in the Porphyry Chamber, his place of birth. In a twisted irony, in this chamber, Irene ordered the agonizing blinding of his son making him unfit to rule and in such a way causing his death shortly thereafter. Irene then made a radical declaration, she assumed the position of Basileus or Emperor rather than Basileia or Empress. A political move to declare her absolute power – a move that female leaders took such as Jadwiga of Poland.

Queen Jadwiga of Poland,
who took the title of Rex or King

Reign of “Emperor” Irene

"Emperor” Irene faced several issues in foreign affairs. To the west, the growing might and influence of the Frankish King Charlemagne over Western Europe and the Papacy. To the east, the Abbasid Caliphate under Caliph Harun al-Rashid threatened the borders of the Empire. Both aimed to weakened or challenge the last vestiges of the Roman Empire.

Towards Charlemagne, relations took a cordial path. Back in 782, Irene attempted to forge a marriage between his son Constantine and Charlemagne’s daughter Rotrud. She sent a tutor to teach the Frankish princess Greek and provided introductory lessons to Eastern Roman Imperial culture. However, the difference in icons broke the wedding plans and a father’s love against sending his daughter to a faraway disrupted the engagement. Territorial disputes plagued the relations between the 2 powers. In 788, the Empire lost Istria and Benevento to the Franks. Then in 800, Pope Leo III declared Charlemagne Roman Emperor. In the eyes of the Bishop of Rome a woman holding the title of Roman Emperor might as well be a vacant position and to further military and political favors with the nearer and powerful Frankish Empire, Charlemagne had as a Christmas gift the title of Roman Emperor. The act humiliated Constantinople, but soon Charlemagne made it clear he had no intention of contending with Irene. Rather he proposed a Byzantine-Frankish union by proposing marriage to Irene. However, scheming officials close to Irene opposed and killed this powerful union before its birth.

Leo's coronation of Charlemagne

On the other hand, towards the east, Harun al-Rashid forces stood poise to invade the Eastern Roman Empire. Back in the 780s, Harun al-Rashid provided a safe haven to Elpidius of Sicily who led a failed rebellion against Irene. As the Muslim army prepared to march in 782, the Governor of the Bucellarian Theme, Tatzates, defected to the Arabs and alarmed Constantinople. However, Irene placated the Muslims by bribing them agreeing to a 3-year truce with an annual payment of tribute worth 70,000 or 90,000 dinars in addition to 10,000 silk garments in addition to provision and guides to march out of Anatolia. The Caliph of the Abbasid, being honorable, put a stop to the invasion, and secured peace for a while. The peace lasted until 798, when suddenly a new Abbasid threat reemerge, only being foiled by another concession by Irene.

On the domestic front, Irene’s political policy produced factionalism, but she achieved great popularity with his populist reforms. With her son dead and no heir in sight, many looked towards closer relations with Irene as their ticket to the throne. Irene, on the other hand, used herself as bait playing different factions against one another. She made herself as the distraction to prevent any thoughts of a coup. Despite fostering factionalism, she earned the love of the people by her decision to lower taxes and abolish others. Her support of community outreach such as soup kitchens and hospices earned her the love of the common Romans. Merchants celebrated her regime when her government reduced import and export duties. The elite fought against each other while the common people celebrated under Irene’s rule.

Fall and Exile

In 802, a plot against Irene succeeded. Masterminded by Irene’s finance minister Nicephorus. Irene’s lowering of taxes, abolition of some dues, along with a ravaged countryside as a result of Muslim raids infuriated her finance minister, thus a plot hatched. Irene, already old, accepted her fell from power fearing the same fate as his son if she resisted. She went into exile to the island of Prinkipo, now modern-day Büyükada, then, later on, moved to a monastery in Lesbos. She continued to live her monastic life until August 9, 803. For her compassion towards the poor and her devotion to icons, the Orthodox Church canonized her and made August 9 her feast day.

See also:
Charlemagne

Bibliography:
Websites:
“Irene of Athens (c. 752 – 803).” Women in World History: A Biographical Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia.com. Accessed March 31, 2021. URL: https://www.encyclopedia.com/women/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/irene-athens-c-752-803

“Irene of Athens.” Your Dictionary. Accessed on March 30, 2021. URL: https://biography.yourdictionary.com/irene-of-athens

“The Emperor Irene.” ER Services. Accessed on March 31, 2021. URL: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldhistory/

Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. “Irene.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed on March 30, 2021. URL: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Irene-Byzantine-empress-752-803

General References:
“Irene, c. 752-803.” Encyclopedia of Greece and the Hellenic Tradition. Edited by Graham Speake. New York, New York: Routledge, 2000.

Herbst, Matthew. “Irene (r. 797-802 CE).” The Byzantine Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia. Edited by James Francis LePree. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2019.

Books:
Garland, Lynda. Byzantine Empresses: Women and Power in Byzantium, AD 527 – 1204. New York, New York: Routledge, 1999.

Turtledove, Harry. The Chronicle of Theophanes: An English translation of Anni Mundi 6095 – 6305 (A.D. 602-813), with Introduction and Notes. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1982.