The Rise and Fall of the Isaurian Dynasty

A dynasty that plunged the Byzantine Empire into a sectarian division between those who venerated icons in their worship and those who saw it as idolatry. The Isaurian Dynasty (717 - 802) confronted the continuous threat of Muslim as well as Bulgar expansion and the emergence of the Frankish Empire. It met an ending under a woman Basileus.

Founding

The year 695 marked the start of the so-called Twenty Year’s Anarchy. The Heraclian Dynasty fell followed by 6 successions of Emperors in 22 years. Alongside political instability, plague, Muslim raids, and foreign intervention stalked the lands. In this mess, Leo III and the Isaurian Dynasty rise to power.

Between 714 and 715, Emperor Anastasios faced a rebellion from the Opsician Theme. The rebellious troops initially received orders to go to the Levant to burn highly-priced cedarwood and Byzantine equipment before it falls to the Muslims. The Opsician forces, however, rebelled and proclaimed an obscure tax collector named Theodosius as Emperor. Eventually, through bribery, Theodosius’ faction won and Anastasios accepted the vow of a monk in Thessalonike.

Leo, the founders of the Isaurian Dynasty, at this time served as the Strategos of the Anatolic Theme, the largest province in the Empire. He served Anastasios in war, but the new Theodosius regime kept him in his place. Leo, understanding his potential for victory, cast his lot for the throne. His receipt of support from Artabasdos, Strategos of the neighboring Armeniac Theme, the second largest province in the Empire, further encouraged him. The marriage of Artabasdos to Leo’s daughter Anna cemented the alliance.

On the other hand, the Byzantine Empire once again faced a Muslim invasion led by the renowned General Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik. One of Maslama’s subordinates named Suleiman marched into Anatolic Theme’s capital, Amorium. They sought Leo’s support and hoped for the Strategos to take Constantinople on their behalf and so they wrote:

“We know the Roman Empire is rightfully yours. Come to us; let us discuss peace terms.”

Thus, the Muslims first recognized him as Emperor before the people of his own capital did so. While the Muslim army remained at bay, Leo moved to take Constantinople. On his way to the capital, he managed to capture Theodosius’ son, his retinue, and important government officials. Leo then sent a message through the Patriarch Germanus his terms: the Empire for his Theodosius’ son. Theodosius, a coerced Emperor, accepted the terms and went into exile peacefully as a monk. Leo took the throne on March 25, 717.

The Basileus attended to the pressing matter – the Muslim siege of Constantinople. As Leo set his court and broke his alliance with the Muslims. An Umayyad force, thus, descended and besieged the capital. Fortunately, with desertion ripe in the Umayyad Army and assistance from Khan Tervel and the Bulgars, Constantinople survived. Leo then began to properly consolidate his power. Through series of marriages, he secured the throne, and through a victory in the Battle of Akroinos in 740, he pushed back the borders of the Umayyad Caliphate back into the Levant.

With military success, he tackled the source of political instability. Large Themes fed tremendous resources to ambitious Strategoi who sought to be Emperors. Therefore, he divided the largest Themes to prevent Strategoi from attempting to rebel. As his long reign exemplified, this policy seemed to work and along with the tired population, stability returned to the Empire.

Iconoclasm

Natural disasters and military misadventures convinced Leo to begin a controversy that defined his dynasty - Iconoclasm. Leo showed his crusader persona in 722 when he ordered the forced baptism of Jews and other heretical Christian sects. Either through his knowledge of Islamic contact in Isauria (Northern Syria) or teachings of Bishops, in 726 he voiced his disgust over icons. Misfortunes in the battlefield followed by a huge volcanic eruption that clouded the sky with ash drove Emperor Leo into viewing icons as the source of God’s displeasure. In 730, he declared Iconoclasm as the pillar of his regime and of the Empire. Destruction of icons and persecution of Iconophiles or Iconoclodes (supporters of veneration of icons) became the order of the day. Patriarch Germanus opposed the policy and paid with his position for it.

Byzantine Iconoclasm, Chludov Psalter, 9th century

In Byzantine-controlled Italy, Pope Gregory III condemned Leo III’s Iconoclast policy and tensions soared. Leo severed ties of the Bishop of Rome with the Churches in Byzantine-held Italy transferring jurisdiction to the Patriarch of Constantinople. The rift led Rome to rely less on Constantinople and shifted towards the rising power of the Frankish Empire. Many Italians also opposed Iconoclasm causing mass dissatisfaction. The policy resulted in revolts, but the army quickly suppressed. Leo’s Iconoclasm polarized the population and led to historic events with tremendous political and religious repercussions.

Maintaining Power

In 741, Leo III the Isaurian passed away. From Leo’s successors, the Isaurian Dynasty endured thanks to astute diplomacy and military success. Iconoclasm also prevailed for few decades becoming a main characteristic of the dynasty.

Constantine V succeeded his father as Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire. Under his rule, the Byzantines continued to successfully engage the Arabs and the Bulgars retaking some lands lost during the previous century. He also cemented an alliance with the Khazars with his marriage to the Tzitzak (baptized as Irene). Nevertheless, his reign saw the Empire’s diminishing control over Italy. Military concentration towards the Arabs and the Bulgars neglected the defense of Byzantine interest in Italy. This allowed the Lombards to capture Ravenna striking fear to the Papacy. Rome, thus, sought another protector and found one in form of Pepin the Short of Franks. Isaurian Emperors made military advances near Constantinople at the cost of diminishing control over domains overseas.

In addition to receding Byzantine military presence in Italy, rift with the Papacy furthered with the continuing policy of Iconoclasm. With military successes, Constantine intensified the persecution of Iconophiles. In 754, his convening of the Council of Hieria affirmed the state policy against Icons. Persecution of monks, closure of monasteries, destruction of exquisite images, and confiscation of monastic lands followed with the last becoming a source of income to finance military operations. With his passing on September 14, 775, he left the task of maintaining the Isaurian Dynasty to his son Leo IV the Khazar.

Subtlety from his father and grandfather’s policies marked Leo IV's reign. He continued military campaigns against Arabs between 777 and 780. The western border reeled from constant fighting as the Bulgars began a civil war in which Leo IV supported Telerig by providing him a safe haven and a wife, a cousin of Empress Irene. In religious matters, Leo moderately pursued Iconoclasm. But after discovering an icon, according to a story, beneath his wife Irene’s pillow, he went on a rampage against Iconophiles in 780. Before he went all out, though, he passed away leaving the throne to his minor son Constantine VI.

Mother vs. Son

A 6-year old Constantine VI, like his grandfather Constantine V, also became co-emperor with his father in 776. He ascended to the throne in 781 at only 11 years old. Being a minor, a regency headed by her ambitious and ruthless mother Irene handled state affairs in his stead. Moreover, a teenage ruler also opened a challenge to his rule coming from his uncle Nicephorus and his 4 uncles. Irene, however, successfully foiled the plot and have them banished to convents.

Woodcut Illustration of Empress Irene (in the left)
and Charlemagne (in the right)

Irene, as regent and an Iconophile, moved to reverse the policies of Iconoclasm in 786. Iconoclast elements in the military, however, delayed her goal and Irene stamped out these units by sending them east, far away from the capital. In 787, she convened the Council of Nicaea welcoming delegates from all Christendom including from the Pope. Unsurprisingly, the Council declared in favor of Icons. The Council helped in mending the ties between Constantinople and Rome for a time.

In 791, Constantine VI, already reaching adulthood, sanctioned a coup against her mother which successfully started his direct rule. However, battlefield defeats resulted in the return of his exiled mother who he also appointed as co-ruler. In 794, a scandalous divorce fanned opposition against Constantine. Empress Irene then unleashed her vengeance using the latest controversy to rally support for her coup against his own son in 797. She cruelly had his son blinded in such a way that he succumbed to death shortly after. Irene then ruled as Basileus – the first female Emperor in Roman history.

Irene’s reign met a threat of Muslim resurgence, competition for influence in the west, and consolidation of her power at home. The Abbasid Caliphate under Harun Al-Rashid began once again to threaten the Anatolian territories of the Eastern Roman Empire. In the west, The Frankish Empire under Charlemagne formed a strong alliance with Pope Leo III. Finally, as a female Empress who took power through a coup placed her in a precarious situation. Her reign thus revolved around facing these crises.

Leo III Crowing Charlemagne, by Friedrich Kaulbach, 1861

With regards to the Abbasid Caliphate, Irene chose to bribe Harun al-Rashid from retreating. Agreeing to pay tribute and providing supplies and guide, the Muslim armies halted their advance and left Byzantine territories. Though seen as a sign of weakness, it provided a sign of relief for the Empire.

Back in the west, Irene’s gender provided the pretext for Leo III to assume the position of Roman Emperor vacant as a woman cannot hold the title. In 800, Leo gave Charlemagne as a Christmas gift the title of Roman Emperor signaling a split between Rome and Constantinople. Despite this, Charlemagne wanted to foster good relations with Irene to the point he offered marriage – a tempting offer that might lead to the revival of Rome’s Northern Mediterranean Empire. Many in Constantinople, however, opposed the union.

Finally, Irene looked to the people to consolidate her grip on power. She lowered or abolished some taxes. She also fostered trade by lowering customs duties. Her tax policies made her popular with the people but horrified her finance minister Nicephorus.

Downfall and the End of the Dynasty

In 802, finance minister Nicephorus staged a coup that ended with the overthrow of Irene’s regime. Several factors led to the coup. Irene’s downfall marked the end of the Isaurian Dynasty.

Irene, since in the time of the regency, already made a lot of enemies. He relied on eunuchs to fill civil as well as military positions. Her Iconophile leanings made him unpopular to the military who mostly Iconoclast. After her ascension as Basileus, she fostered factionalism allowing the nobility to compete for her favor hoping that upon her passing their families would take over the country. This atmosphere of competition caused a stir of opposition when Charlemagne proposed marriage. These factions would lose their chance to elevate themselves to a higher position with Charlemagne’s great might. Lastly, Irene’s populist policies horrified many for its cost in finance of the Empire. Hence, rallying support from disgruntled nobles, generals, and officials, Nicephorus successfully overthrew Irene.

Irene, already old and fearing the same fate as her son, resigned to her downfall. She went into exile to a monastery in Lesbos where she passed away in 803. Her downfall ended the less than a century rule but profoundly influential Isaurian Dynasty.

Summing Up

The Isaurian Dynasty defended the borders of the Empire against the Bulgars and Muslims, but lost the Byzantine sphere of influence in the west and divided the Empire with Iconoclasm. Isaurian Emperors managed to keep the Bulgars at bay and to retake some territories lost to the Umayyads. However, with their forces heavily engaged near home, they neglected Italy. It changed the Papacy’s reliance on Constantinople to the Frankish Kings. This neglect along with Iconoclasm and Irene’s rise to power contributed to the rise of the Holy Roman Empire. Iconoclasm wounded the Empire. Despite Irene’s victory in Nicaea, it returned during the mid-9th century that divided opinions and created further rifts with the Pope in Rome. The Isaurian Dynasty protected the Empire’s borders, but it created rifts that divided religion, politics, and the course of history.

See also:
Leo III the Isaurian