After the Second Anglo-Afghan War, Afghanistan rebuild under the
leadership fo Abdur Rahman. As the new century came near, new challenges
confronted the Barakzai Dynasty. Other than maintaining peace with imperial powers,
the Barakzai also faced the reality of change – modernization, westernization,
and reformation. They must steer the country towards stable progress against a
backdrop of rigid traditionalism and tribalism.
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| Afghan troops, 1900's |
The Hermit Emirate – Reign of
Abdur Rahman
Abdur Rahman oversaw the British withdrawal from Afghanistan in 1881
leaving a country once again in state of division. Abdur Rahman oversaw the
reconstruction of the country, the reformation of its politics, and the transformation
of the country to 19th century North Korea. His policies led to his epithet –
the Iron Emir.
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| Abdur Rahman |
Strengthening and consolidation of power took most of the Abdur
Rahman’s reign. The war led to the autonomy and rearming of various tribes in
Afghanistan. As a British-backed Emir, his situation stood precarious as
suspicions lingered on his strength. He then worked to project an image of a
strong ruler. He increase the authority
and power of the emir at the expense of tribal chiefs and mullahs (religious
leaders). He invoked divine right as his source of authority and welcomed the
titled Zia al-Millat-I wa al-Din (the Light of the Nation and Religion). He
called himself an Imam that placed religious authority onto himself taking under
his command the powerful and influential mullahs. Finally he also added the
title of King, thus changing the country’s status from a emirate to a
fully-fledged Kingdom.
Local administration transformed under Abdur Rahman. He reorganized
the country into different provinces that he subdivided into districts and
finally sub-districts. He appointed the governors of these provinces and most
placed in position came from different regions to prevent the building of power
base that might lead to autonomy or even rebellion. He also destroyed the forts of tribal chiefs
and replace it within his own fortresses – an embodiment of the King’s military
presence.
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| Kandahar City Walls, 1880 |
Security forces of Afghanistan saw its expansion under Abdur Rahman.
To defend his reform, his position and that of the dynasty, he expanded the
military by introducing conscription. He also established a secret police that
informed him of opposition and dissent. This enlarged military and police
apparatus allowed Abdur Rahman to secure his position despite facing about 40
rebellions throughout his reign.
Crushing of opposition then became a norm under his reign. Opponents
and critics suffered torture and even death. For rebellious tribes and
villages, the practice of relocation of vast population became a dreaded
punishment as these people have to move to unfamiliar lands with most dying
from exposure or hunger. From his heavy handedness against enemies, Abdur
Rahman became known as the Iron Emir.
Good relations with the British remained a priority for Abdur Rahman
and his foreign policy. Despite keeping cordial relation though, he feared
another invasion or intervention in local affairs. To prevent such
possibilities, he shunned foreign influence which might serve as a Trojan
horse. He prohibited the travel of Afghans oversees. He curtailed foreign
cultural influences and forbade the construction of railroads and telegraphs.
For Abdur Rahman, the deeper the reach of thise foreign technologies the easier
and faster the foreign powers could exert their influence.
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| Sir Henry Mortimer Durand |
Border settlements became a diplomatic issue in Abdur Rahman’s reign.
The vast deserts and mountains as well as lack of infrastructure left the
frontiers open and borders undefined. The Russians and the British then took
the initiative to settle such matters. From 1887 to 1895, the borders of
Afghanistan had been drawn leaving only the one with British India left open
for talks. In 1893, Indian affairs Secretary Mortimer Duran arrived in South
Asia to set the border. In what later became known as the Durand Line, however,
it disregarded ethnic population as a basis for its drawing. This resulted to
vast Pashtun lands which Afghanistan claimed as theirs falling in the hands of
British India. Despite its unfairness, Abdur Rahman agreed to the line in exchange
for higher subsidies. The deal and Abdur Rahman’s approval angered Afghanistan
and further became a controversy that later will haunt the Barakzai Dynasty.
Abdur Rahman passed away on October 1, 1901. Unlike his predecessors,
he managed to prevent another internal chaos of succession. During his reign he
kept his sons in Kabul rather than allowing then to govern provinces, building
local support and powerbases from which they launch their bet for the throne.
This however led to future Barakzai leaders starting to lose touch with Afghans
outside their capital.
Habibullah Khan’s Reign
Habibullah’s reign saw a more lenient rule than his heavy-handed
father. Through he faced opposition during the onset of his reign, it did not
dragged to scale and extent of devastation of his predecessors. Under his rule,
many of his father’s policies reversed. He allowed governors of provinces to be
natives, dismantled the secret police, and abolished harsh capital punishments.
He also allowed the return of political exiles to Afghanistan.
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| King Habibullah Khan |
Developments also began to appear in Afghanistan that had been held
back by Abdur Rahman. Factories began to be established, road networks laid,
telephone lines erected, and hydroelectric plants built. Modern schools and
hospitals also began operation in the country. Habibullah hoped that progress
would be a path towards the country’s independence as well as promote their
dynasty as a leader of prosperity, modernization, and reform.
External affairs under Habibullah oversaw tumultuous events. As a
protest over the Durand Line, Habibullah secretly support raids against British
India. In 1916, despite inclinations towards joining the Central Powers, he
declared the country to be neutral.
Habibullah’s reign ended, however, suddenly. On February 20, 1919, he
passed away from an assassin’s bullet that cut his reign short. The event
catapulted his son Amanullah to the throne.
Traditionalism vs. Reform
Amanullah Khan proved himself to be a stronger proponent of reform. He
also made himself a national hero as well as a public enemy. His reign revealed
the feelings of the Afghan people towards modernization and reform.
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| King Amanullah |
Afghanistan’s independence started Amanullah’s reign on the high note.
In 1919, he declared the country’s independence from Britain, thus retaking the
country’s foreign affairs back in Afghan hands. He exploited Britain’s
exhaustion from World War I. On May 1919, the Third Anglo-Afghan War erupted with
Afghan forces launching surprise attacks on the border. Despite reeling from
their war, Britain retaliated launching a counter attack and aerial bombing
raids on Kabul and Jalalabad. The attacks prompted peace talks with a ceasefire
agreement signed on June 3, 1919. By July 1919, both sides signed the
Rawalpindi Agreement.
The Rawalpindi Agreement ended the Third Anglo-Afghan War. It
reaffirmed the Durand Line. It also stopped British subsidies to the Afghan
Kings. Afghans, however, celebrated British note that declared Afghanistan
“officially free and independent in its internal and external affairs.” The
Barakzai regained the sovereignty over foreign policy. By 1921, both sides
exchanged ambassadors formally establishing diplomatic relations between 2 countries
after the war.
Amanullah’s foreign policy fostered both friendship and animosity. On
one hand, tensions continued between Afghanistan and British India as Kabul
harbored Indian nationalist. Britain responded by ceasing shipments bound for
Afghanistan. On the other hand, Afghan foreign relations expanded. In 1921,
Afghanistan and the Soviet Union signed a Treaty of Friendship between their 2
countries. Also, Amanullah went to a tour of Europe that gained scholarships
for Afghan students and established diplomatic relations.
Amanullah’s modernization, however, gave his reign both achievements
and faults. The Afghan ruler went for an all-out reform. In a staggering speed,
Afghanistan saw changes. In 1922 he introduced a national budget and in a few
years abolished allowances and subsidies to members of the royal family and
tribal leaders. He also introduced Afghanistan’s first constitution that
provided equal rights to all Afghans – men and women. The King and Queen
promoted women’s education to embody this belief. The constitution also
weakened the authority of religious judges or Qadis and promoted secular
courts. It also abolished slavery and force labor.
Traditional Afghan establishment horrified by the reforms. The idea of
women as equal of men angered conservatives. The abolition of subsidies to
tribal leaders antagonized many as did the attack on the authority of Qadis.
The reforms effectively turned the conservatives and religious leaders against
the king. However, more reforms followed.
Amanullah did not bother with opposition and continued the reforms
knowing the military under his uncle Nadir Khah supported him. And so he worked
to create a centralize tax collection bureau. He also switched the calendar
from the Muslim lunar calendar to the Gregorian solar calendar. In 1927, he
ordered the construction of a new palace Darul Aman or Abode of Peace fashioned
on European architecture.
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| King Amanullah visiting Germany, 1928 |
Downfall of Amanullah became the subject of many conservatives.
However, due to the backing of the military, it remained a plot. Amanullah,
however, enacted policies that loss him military support. He reduced the pay of
soldiers and allowed corruption to be rampant. His acts in changing the
country’s conscription system prompted the resignation of his military commander
Nadir Khan. Then in December 1927, he and his Queen Soraya went on an 8-month
tour of Europe, USSR, and other Islamic countries. Their host countries cheered
them but photos of their visit scandalized the Afghanistan. Queen Soraya
without her veil infuriated traditionalist and the religious establishment in
Afghanistan. Rumors also spread that Amanullah already converted into
Catholicism while eating pork and drinking wine. In 1928, he convened a
national assembly or a Loya Jirga to consent on his reform. He first, however,
ordered the members to transform into western gentlemen – dropping the
traditional Afghan clothing and long hair as well as beards. He then unveiled
to the assembly sweeping social and cultural reforms such as discouraging of
the veil and abolition of child marriages. The proposal resulted to rebellions.
In 1929, after tremendous opposition to his reform Amanullah abdicated leaving
the country once again in internal strife as different factions vied for power.
The power vacuum left by Amanallah’s abdication filled by military commander
Nadir Khan who became the new King and became Nadir Shah.
See also:
Bibliography:
Wahab, Shaista & Barry Youngerman. A Brief History of Afghanistan. New York, New York: Facts On File, Inc., 2010.
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