Searching in History: 2015

Great Leaders: King Kamehameha I (Part 5): Ruling a United Kingdom of Hawaii

Kamehameha in Civilization V

With Kamehameha setting up a new government of a united peaceful Hawaii, the people finally focused from war to livelihood. In this aspect of life, Hawaiians and Kamehameha faced a transforming dynamics with the arrival foreigners.

King Kamehameha I

After centuries of infighting, the islands of Hawaii (or at least majority of it) united under the rule of King Kamehameha. Through technology, divine intervention, and deception, he led his warrior to victory and finally ending generations of conflict. Uniting Hawaii was one part of Kamehameha’s story, the other part was about ruling a kingdom in peace. So how did Kamehameha made the transition from a war lord to a peaceful governing ruler? How Hawaii transformed from islands divided into several chiefdoms and into a united kingdom under one king?

Kamehameha as depicted in Civilization V

After the fall of Kiwala’o in 1782, Hawaii’s geopolitical situation dramatically changed. The once united island kingdom of Hawaii had been divided into three kingdoms ruled by Kamehameha, Keoua, and Keawema’uhili. Beyond the island of Hawaii, conditions also changed significantly. After centuries of brutal fighting between numerous higher chiefs, a single leader emerged as the most prominent. Kahekili – King of Maui Island – took control over Molokai, Lanai, Oahu, and indirectly ruled Kauai, through his brother’s assistance. Kamehameha’s destiny as prophesied during his birth seemed slipping away and taken by Kahekili. How Kamehameha turned things around and became the unifier of Hawaiian Archipelago?

Kamehameha as depicted in Civilization V

Kamehameha faced tremendous challenges as he assumed his position as one of the high chiefs or ali’i in the big island of Hawaii. After a bloody civil war, the island had been split into three ruled by him, Keoua, and Keawema’uhili. Outside the island of Hawaii, King Kahekili of Maui had advance his domains to the islands of Lanai, Molokai, and Oahu. He even controlled indirectly through his brother the islands of Kauai and Nahuii. Kamehameha faced a though threat outside Hawaii and faced division within his home island. How could he unite all Hawaiian island if his home island itself suffered division? How Kamehameha did united his home island of Hawaii?

Kamehameha I

Located in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, the Islands of Hawaii hosted millions of vacationers in its paradise. But behind this paradise lies a chaotic past. A history of war that ravaged for centuries. An island divided into several chiefs and kings, each vying for supremacy and power over the others. But in the 18th century, one man put an end to it all and brought peace and unity to this archipelago– King Kamehameha the Great.

Gandhi in South Africa

Gandhi used non-violence noncooperation, known as satyagraha, to bring independence to his country India. However, the satyagraha developed not in India, but in a country across another side of the Indian Ocean – South Africa. There Gandhi stayed for more than a decade and developed his most revolutionary way of fighting oppression and discrimination.

Depiction of Mahavira (Wikimedia Common)

A religion that originated in India, it stood overshadowed by two other prominent Indian religions – Hinduism and Buddhism. A belief that followed the same path of spiritual enlightenment and detachments. It is the religion known as Jainism.

Henry Ford

One of the icons of American business and automobile industry. He revolutionize the manufacturing of cars, bringing it to the masses. His innovations gave him a sparkling name, but his later years, tarnished his reputation and became notorious in the eyes of the public. Henry Ford rose from humble beginnings into one of the greatest magnates in the early 1900's.

Bessemer Converter

A process that change the world. It added steam to the already ongoing industrial revolution that hit the world. It allowed men to build new products and build structures towards the heavens. The Bessemer process allowed the mass production of steel, a material that shaped our modern world.

King John signing the Magna Carta

It is an influential document in world history. It constricted the powers of a monarch in an era of absolute power of kings. It set the tone for the concept of civil rights. The Magna Carta of 1215 constrained the power of England’s King John and placed law above all else, including powerful monarchs.

19th century stereopticon depicting the Great Pyramid

Known as the Horizon of Khufu, the Great Pyramid of Giza is the last remaining Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. It served as a tomb of the Pharaohs of Ancient Egypt. It mobilized thousands of men and resources in order to attain such a gargantuan monument. A monument that served as the testament to the wealth and power as well as ingenuity of Ancient Egyptians.

Idi Amin

He ruled his country with an iron fist for 9 years. During that time, he terrorized his people and subjugated them in tremendous fear. He crushed his opponent both real and imagined. His antics surprised many and gave him the image of a “buffoon” in the eyes of the international community. He led his country through his personal taste, making his country isolated, chaotic, and bankrupt. He was one of Africa’s most brutal dictator. He was Idi Amin.

Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna (1853)

The initial years of independence of Mexico saw chaos and turbulence. Emperor Agustin I had been criticize for his excess, starting with his grand coronation. His acts of subduing opposition and finally abolishing the Congress led to the creation of yet another plan in Mexican history – the Plan of Casa Mata.

Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna

From a military man to a political leader of volatile nation. Never such a man had the ambitions and drive to become the President of Mexico for eleven times. In each term, he ruled Mexico with an iron fist and a hand that squandered the wealth of his impoverish nation for his vices. General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, remembered for his victory in the Alamo but his country knows him both as a hero and villainous tyrant.

Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna

Agustin de Iturbide

In February 1821, two leaders met in the town of Iguala in Mexico to discuss their plan for the autonomy or independence of what became the nation of Mexico. After a decade of fighting, the two decided to make a deal that would bring freedom and equality to the tired people. The result became known as the Plan of Iguala.

Josefa Ortiz de Domínguez

It was a conspiracy that for autonomy but later blew up into a major war for independence. A political movement aimed to change the political and social landscape of Mexico. The Queretaro Conspiracy proved to be the root of a decade long independence war and the synthesis of centuries-long discrimination and oppression.

Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla
by Jose Clemente Orozco

It was the revolt that moved a country towards independence. The Revolt Fr. Miguel Hidalgo plunged Mexico to a decade long war for independence. A revolt rooted from centuries of oppression, inequality, and discrimination, it brought out the best and the worst of men. A revolt drove by anger and vengeance that ultimately caused Hidalgo’s downfall.

Emperor Agustin Iturbide

Mexico’s independence in 1821 came from the most unlikely source. For decades, fighters hardly fought crying for independence, equality, and the ideas of liberalism. Morelos and Hidalgo led rebellions that terrorized the Spanish colonial government in Mexico. Little did they knew, the one that led Mexico to their independence came from their ranks. Agustin de Iturbide a military officer who went against the ideals of liberalism of Morelos and Hidalgo but achieved what the latter individuals did not achieve.

A rebellion caused by disillusionment and neglect. The Satsuma Rebellion, led by Saigo Takamori, it synthesized the discontent that the samurais felt under the rapidly changing culture under the new Meiji Era. The rebellion could that could have change the fate of Japan’s transformation.

Yasuda Zenjiro

Founded the Yasuda Zaibatsu, he came from a poor background but rose to prominence in the financial world from his money changing business. He cashed in the development of Japan and made huge fortunes that landed his company as the fourth largest Zaibatsu or conglomerate in country.

Industrialization allowed Japan to attain modern weapons for its defense and military campaigns

It was a slogan that summed up the ideals of the Meiji Era. Fukoku Kyohei, meaning Enriching the Country, strengthen the army or Rich Country, Strong Army, became the principle that led to the modernization and transformation of Japan.

4 Builders of Meiji Japan II

Japan emerged as Asia’s representative major power in the end of the 19th century. It achieved in less than five decade the process of transforming from an agricultural and feudal society to a full fledge industrial and constitutional country that protected Japan from the clutches of western imperialism. Much of this drastic changes had been attributed to the following officials.

Iwakura Mission (left) during their audience with French President

Iwakura Mission aimed for a revision of unequal treaties that Japan signed during the latter part of the Tokugawa Shogunate. Although it failed in some aspects it took many lessons during a mission that took the participants across the globe.

Illustration by Newton Graphic Science Magazine “Nihon no ruutsu”

In the era before written accounts of Japan, in particular the Yayoi and Kofun age, various kingdoms emerged and flourished. The Kingdom of Wa was among these kingdoms. The Kingdom of Wa became even more famous for its mysterious and elusive ruler, Queen Himiko.

4 Builders of Meiji Japan

Suruga Street with Echigoya in the left
(Today: the Right side is occupied by the
Mitsui Main Building)

Japan faced an economic transformation after the 1860’s. She pursed the path of transformation from an agricultural medievalist country to an industrial, modern, and westernize country. Many business had to adopt to the situation or face bankruptcy, which happened to many old enterprises. But some merchant houses succeeded to transform. They did not just survive but they grew to become powerful conglomerates know as Zaibatsu. The biggest of this Zaibatsu was the House of Mitsui that flourished under the management of Minomura Rizaemon.

Matsukata Masayoshi

He was the man that cemented Japan’s transformation. In an era of aggressive foreign expansion in Asia, Japan decided to pursue a course towards modernization and industrialization under the slogan of Fukoku Kyohei – Rich Nation, Strong Army. But in the late in 1870’s Japan’s transformation faced a tough challenges. The Land of the Rising Sun might just set with an economic crisis, which could not afford. But one man had the guts to solve this crisis – Matsukata Masayoshi.

3 Revolutionaries in Latin America

Besides the most famous revolutionaries, like Bolivar, de San Martin, de Miranda, and Hidalgo, many more joined them in the pantheon of liberators whose aim was to liberated their countries from oppressive and unequal societies of Spain.

Emperor Meiji

Japan’s independence came under threat from the increasing presence of westerners in Asia. In 1858, the ships of American Commodore Mathew Perry opened Japan’s doors to the world. With opening came a change in leadership, from the Tokugawa Shogunate, power returned to the Emperor. Under the Meiji Emperor and the spirit of Fukoku Kyohei or rich country, Strong army, Japan underwent an industrial revolution that made it into the economic powerhouse of Asia.

A kingdom with an impressive wealth and an extraordinary network, the Funan Kingdom stood as one of the earliest most powerful kingdoms in Southeast Asia. With the capital in Vyadapura or the City of Hunters in Khmer language, it dominated the area that composed Cambodia, Vietnam, and parts of the Malaya Peninsula and Thailand. It ruled the area from the 3rd and up to the 7th century. But with the changing in the maritime trade of Asia, Funan felt the effects catastrophically, leading eventually into its assimilation with its neighboring kingdom.

Mobutu Sese Seko

If someone made a list of worst dictators in history, Mobutu Sese Seko would always be a part of the list. A man who ruined his country, Mobutu ruled with brutality, corruption, and extreme case of narcissism. Served initially as a soldier in the Belgian colonial army, he became journalist and an active participant in politics. When he returned to the military, he became widely involve in the politics of the newly independent Democratic Republic of Congo. So much his involvement, he launched a coup that marked the start of his 32 year reign of terror.

Hidalgo in the center with the banner depicting the Virgin of Guadalupe

From a sleepy town, the Cry of Dolores marked the end of Spanish rule in Mexico. A cry made by a group of men and women dedicated to the ideas of Enlightenment led by man from the least suspected sector of colonial Mexican society. It signaled an uprising that later inspired Mexico’s fight for independence.

Jean-Bedel Bokassa during his coronation

Known for brutality and outrageous extravagance, Jean-Bedel Bokassa showed an example of how authoritarian military rulers turning into despotic megalomania. From a soldier in the French Army to his country’s Emperor, Bokassa brought terror and poverty to his people.

BASF Factory (1881)

She emerged as the most industrialized country by the end of the 19th century. Germany surpassed the home of the industrial revolution – Great Britain. From a once divided nation, its strength and potential became full and unleashed.

Borobudur (depicted in Civilization V), the greatest monument of Sailendra Dynasty

They gave the world the largest stupa in the world – Borobudur. Their civilization shrouded in mystery. They ruled Central Java and became agents of Buddhism from a once Hindu Kingdom. For over the century they ruled the region until their rivals reentered the scene and grab the control of the Kingdom. This is the Sailendra Dynasty of Central Java.

Borobodur (depicted in Civilization V)

It serves as the biggest Buddhist temple in the world. It stands as a reminder of a once great kingdom in Central Java. It is one of the greatest monuments in Southeast Asia. It is the temple of Borobudur in Java, Indonesia.

Prince Shotoku (Middle)

From the troubles of succession and division about religion, Prince Shotoku emerged as one of the famous regent during the time of ancient Japan. He contributed a lot in changing the religious and administrative landscape of country.

4 Revolutionaries in Latin America

The first decade of the 19th century thundered with the sounds of revolution in Latin America. Men who had Spanish ancestry but born in the colonies learned of the ideas of the Enlightenment or became aware of their distinct identity from those in Spain. And here are four who became distinguish during the period:

The 18th century saw a boom in the oil industry. The United States dominated the industry with its leading company, Standard Oil. But it faced competition from the other side of the world – Russia. The oil city of Baku challenged American domination of world’s oil supply. In this city, it saw the rise of another member of the Swedish family Nobel – Ludvig or Ludwig Nobel.

Minh Mang

The Nguyen Dynasty had ruled a unified Vietnam for two decades by 1820. Its founder, Gia Long passed away. His son then ascended to the throne as Emperor Minh Mang. Under his rule, Vietnam plunged into orthodox Confucianism and towards centralization and conquest.

Colbertisme and the French Economy

Abenomics, Bidenomics, Thatcherism - it seems to be a fad among politicians to label their economic policies. Apparently it also applies to economic managers from distant past, like the case of the 17th century financial and economic manager of King Louis XIV (1643 - 1715) of France. So who is Jean-Baptiste Colbert? What are the pillars of his so-called Colbertisme? Was he successful?

Jean Baptiste Colbert

Great Britain and France – a rivalry that ran for more than a half a millennium, but in the quest for industrial revolution, unfortunately for the home of the Eiffel Tower and the most romantic city in the world, they lose the top position.

Stories of industrialization usually field with awe inspiring numbers as well as technological progress France’s story was no different. So how did France industrialized? And more importantly, why did it lagged behind its rivals in the north and later in east (Germany)?

Pre-Industrialized France

About 300 years ago, France stood as the top model of the so-called Ancien Regime also known aa a political landscape dominated by absolute rulers, nobility, and feudalism.

Agriculture dominated the economy, but the peasants who made up about 90% of the population and powering this sector do not own the land and most of their income and harvest went to the Church or the nobility who made up the 10%. Taxes mostly went to finance the luxurious lifestyle of the clergy and nobility.

Local trade existed, but restricted. In trade, regional customs border persisted, meaning, as example, a merchant from Normandy wanted to sell goods to neighboring Brittany, they paid customs or domestic tariffs despite being under a single kingdom.

On the other hand, mercantilism governed international trade. Mercantilism based a state’s wealth on the amount of metal currency it owned. Metal dictated economic wealth just as GDP measures today’s economies. This meant, imports, which resulted to gold and silver flowing out, was highly discouraged while exports promoted.

But just as trade, crafts and small industries suffered from hurdles as well. Guilds with strong its strong hierarchy held a monopoly of different trade, making it difficult for a beginner to start his own shop.

Income inequality, flawed land ownership, trade and industry restriction described the French economy in the 18th century. Nevertheless, Versailles or Paris attempted to stimulate industries. A process which today may be called as proto-industrialization.

Colbert and Napoleon

Jean-Baptiste Colbert, Louis XIV’s finance minister, and Napoleon Bonaparte, one of Europe’s greatest military leader, shaped France’s economy that stimulated some industrial activity. Both using different means to warm up the economy for the later main event of industrialization.

Colbert propped up the economy following the lines of mercantilism. He used the demand of the nobility for luxury goods to stir up local industries from silk, porcelain, etc. Towns turned into centers of industries. Such as the case of Lyon with its silk industry and Beauvais’ tapestry industry. Imagine Colbert’s policy depending on companies like Channel and Louis-Vuitton to drive industries. In the end Colbert’s policy failed to stir change in the French economic landscape, worst, the monarchy, nobility and clergy failed to reform that resulted to a well-known Revolution.

A Revolution that gave an opportunity for a Corsican general named Napoleon Bonaparte to rise to power and lead France to conquering much of Europe. Conquering Europe meant a huge army that needed to armed, clothed, and fed.

This stimulated different industries and called for innovations. Textile demand prompted Joseph-Marie Jacquard to develop a loom, which became a milestone in the history of modern computer. Food demand saw men like Nicolas Appert starting 1795 to develop food packing technique using bottles. Besides food and textile, iron and infrastructure also developed. Mobilization of resources required more roads, canals, and ports. Construction and mining joined the war efforts. Alas, it failed prevent Napoleon’s downfall.

While Colbert stimulated industries with luxury goods and Napoleon drove it with war. Though it both failed to drive the French economy to industrialized, the skills and experience gained from them built the blocks for the industrialization of the 19th century.

Fundamental Changes

Between the time of Colbert and Napoleon, the French Revolution of the 1789 finally altered the French socio-political-economic landscape that allowed for industrialization.

The Revolution changed land ownership. Lands confiscated from the clergy and nobility turned over to the peasantry. The Napoleonic Code abolished guilds and local customs duties, thus liberalizing crafts and industries as well as expanding the domestic market.

An opportunity to innovate and to drive demand remained the key ingredient needed. Louis XVIII imposed high tariffs on imports that made local industries complacent and retarded innovation. Furthermore, agricultural exports proved to be profitable and industries remained neglected. This changed, however, during the 1830s.

French Industrialization via Railroads

A monarchy and another Napoleon drove forward France’s industrialization. Wonders of the railroad in Britain reached France and the need to maintain a balance of power triggered Paris. Vanity and power contributed in the take-off French industrial growth.

King Louis-Philippe ruled France from 1830 to 1848. He hoped to be a progressive monarch. So, when the hype for railroads in Great Britain reached him. He decided to forward his credential by supporting this modern technology.

Back in the 1827, the St. Etienne-Andrezieux railroad line opened under Louis-Philippe’s predecessor. But under Louis-Philippe, he gave the industry steroids by declaring his patronage of the industry with the establishment of new networks. The railroad industry boomed.

In 1848, Louis-Philippe fell from power and arose Louis Napoleon later on Napoleon III, nephew of the conquering Napoleon Bonaparte. Napoleon III had a flare form recreating his uncle’s glory. He saw the railroad’s military potential. Thus, he continued his predecessor’s railroad fetish.

In numbers, between 1835 and 1844, 903 locomotives operated across France. By 1845 and 1854 it grew to 1,852. The expansion continued even after Napoleon III stepped down in 1870 and the Third Republic came to power. The Freycinet Plan between the 1870s and 1880s furthered the momentum of the network expansion.

This growth created a demand for various materials which gave many industries opportunities to profit. Several heavy industries exploited this. It, thus, powered the French industrialization.

Heavy Industries

Iron, steel, coal, and machinery industries benefited from the railroad boom. Centers of industries and new business families appeared. Ultimately making France as one of the most industrialized countries in the 19th century.

Railroad needed tracks made out of metal, i.e. iron and later steel. France already boasted an iron industry prior 1840s. In 1782, they inaugurated their first blast furnace and in 1820, they adopted British technology to cast iron. This resulted in increased production.

Men like Francois de Wendel drove the industry. In 1804 he started an iron forge using English technology that he learned as a refugee in England during the Revolution. He used steam engines in mining and smelting. The railroad boom propelled further his wealth up. His family became similar to a Korean chaebol creating the De Wendel industrial dynasty that remained active to this day as the Wendel S.E. By 1860, they employed 10,000 workers. They later expanded to railroad construction itself and shipbuilding.

The 1860s further saw increase in steel in iron output. The introduction of the hot blast method drove this. In numerical terms, from production 125,300 tons of iron in 1826, it stood to 1,250,000 tons by 1865, almost a 1,000% increase.

Steam engine powered locomotives, machines, and mines. It became the 19th century’s semiconductor, a strategic technology sustaining industries. French tradesmen brought the technology back from Great Britain just like De Wendel.

The use of steam engines further expanded with rising demand for locomotives. Growth in other industries also contributed. Petin & Gaudet for instance used steam engines to power hammers for making train tires. Hence, from 625 machines operating in 1830, it grew to 32,000 by 1875, about a 5,000% increase.

In this field, men like Eugene Schneider made a fortune. He bought the Le Creusot Metalworks and by 1838 introduced France’s first domestically produced locomotive, the Gironde. From metalworks and locomotives, Schneider’s family expanded to other industries including the arms industry. They became France’s champion against Germany’s Krupp. Like the De Wendel, the Schneiders became an industrial dynasty and from them came out Schneider Electric.

As steam engines equals to a semiconductor, coal represents the oil of the industrial age. With the rise of steam engines, so as the need for coal. In 1789, France needed 450,000 tons of coal and locally produced 230,000 tons, by 1850, it grew to a demand of 7.2 million tons with domestic sources accounting to 4.4 million tons. 1,600% increase in demand and about 1,900% increase in domestic production.

The Textile Industry

Textile became a staple of industrialization stories. For France, it saw leaps and bounds, but the competitor remained strong.

The French textile industry came later due to the strong market share of cheap British made fabrics. They carved a niche in high-end luxury goods, hence the less need for machinery and industrial scale production. Nevertheless, technology advanced. From 1830 to 1860, British spindle techniques led to 200% increase in textile production.

In 1830, Barthelemy Thimonnier invented the sewing machine. His invention caught the eye of the French military who contracted him to make uniforms. To meet his obligations, he established a factory with 80 sewing machines. His factory, however, angered local weavers who destroyed his facility. He rebuilt his factory in 1848, but it too went down. The ventures left him broken and he passed away poor.

Regional Development

The rise of industries and wealthy families saw towns and regions becoming growth hubs. Mainly due to close proximity to raw materials. Names of cities and towns became synonymous to various industries.

For textile, Lyon continued to be a center of silk while Rouen in Normandy became famous for cotton. Roubaix in Lille became textile manufacturing hub. Melhouse took the dye industry.

Heavy industries developed in the region of Alsace-Lorraine due to its abundance in coal and iron deposits. The De Wendel family, in fact, came from Lorraine. Saint-Chamond and Le Creusot also shared a piece of industrial pie with the latter hosting the Schneider family.

In 1873, the lost of the Alsace-Lorraine region dented French industries, nevertheless, onward to progress.

Later Industrial Developments

With the dawn of the latter half of the 19th century, more industries, especially in metals and machinery emerged. France became a major player in these industries.

The development of electrometallurgy, especially aluminum, boosted French industries. The Hall-Heroult process contributed to the growth. Electrochemistry, which led to development of batteries also took place in France.

Finally, the dawn of automobile came and famous French brands appeared. In 1891, Arman Peaugot established a company the bare his name began operations with assistance from Gottlieb Daimler and Emile Levassor. Do not forget Renault which began operation in 1898 with its quadricycles.

France became a major power in the world, though it failed to take the top spot from Britain and then later Germany followed by the United States of America.

Challenges in French Industrialization

No doubt that France industrialized in the 19th century and became an economic power. It failed, though, in becoming No. 1 for several reasons. Questions even exists if France experienced an industrial revolution.

First, political upheaval, even to this day, damaged the economy. In 1760s France matched Great Britain. Revolutions, from the French Revolution to 1848 Revolution, along with the Napoleonic Wars distracted the French from a sustainable industrialization.

Second, France suffered shortages in resources needed for industrialization, especially coal and iron. While Great Britain transitioned to coal, France kept using the more expensive charcoal to power machineries. Even with the discovery of coal fields, the quality stood inferior to British coal.

Then came problems in transportation. Despite canal projects that connected rivers and seas, it failed to create a massive network that lowers shipping cost. The dismal quality of roads across Europe also contributed to this.

Finally, agriculture remained a main source of sustenance. The land reforms of the Revolution kept most in farms rather than in factories. In 1806, 65.1% of the population worked in agriculture. By 1896, it decreased to 42.5% of the populations. Nevertheless, it remained as a top employer.

In 1806, population working in industries stood at 20.4%. By 1896, it grew to 31.4%, but still lower than agriculture.

With agriculture still employing most French, the number of workers available remained low, thus wages stood higher than those of Great Britain. Only with the 1840s, notoriously dubbed as the Hungry Forties, triggered a surplus in labor causing wages to fall.

With the huge share of agriculture in employment followed by limitations in resources, some doubt if France experienced an industrial revolution. A paper from Calcutta University said, “One can say France witnessed industrialization, but not an industrial revolution.”

Summing Up

In just 2 centuries, France transformed from a medieval economic system to a major industrialized power.

From an economy dominated by nobility and mercantilism, it witnessed patches of growth in industry driven by luxury and war. But it sowed the seeds of skills and experience where the addition of technology and government support led to industrial growth.

The marvel of railroads, national pride, and military necessity finally pushed various industries forward and the adoption of latest technologies. Heavy industries grew just as some families and regions.

Nevertheless, challenges remained such as in the case of textile that remained dominated by the British or the loss of Alsace-Lorraine in 1873. Limitations in resources, lack of good transportation and finally political instability lagged France behind its neighbors most especially Great Britain and Germany.

Despite its challenges, France industrialized and became a great power by the end of the 19th century. It built progress and prosperity that gave birth to the era dubbed as Belle Epoque.

Update History: Rewritten on March 10, 2024

See also:

Great Spurt

Industrial Revolution: Belgium

Industrial Revolution: Germany
Industrial Revolution: Japan

Bibliography:

Beaud, Claude, "Schneider, Joseph-Eugene," in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Economic History, Volume 1, Joel Mokyr (ed.). New York, New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.

Berand, Ivan. An Econoic History of Nineteenth-Century Europe: Diversity and Industrialization. New York, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013.

Carlock, Randel. Strategic Planning for the Family Business: Parallel Planning to Unify the Family and Business. New York, New York: Palgrave, 2001.

Caron, Francois. An Economic History of Modern France. New York, New York: Routledge, 1979.

Caron, Francois. "France: Modern Period" in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Economic History, Volume 1, Joel Mokyr (ed.). New York, New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.

Klooster, John. Icons of Invention: The Makers of the Modern World From Guttenberg to Gates. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, LLC, 2009.

Inventors and Inventions. Tarrytown, New York: Marshall Cavendish, 2008.

"Industrial History: France." European Route of Industrial Heritage. Accessed on March 30, 2015. http://www.erih.net/industrial-history/france.html

"Industrial Revolution France." University of Calcutta. Accessed on March 10, 2024. URL: https://www.caluniv.ac.in/academic/History/Study/IR-France.pdf

Monuments of Southeast Asia: Angkor Wat

Angkor Wat (Drawing by Henri Mouhot)

Lying in the center of marsh and jungle, the Angkor Wat stood as one of biggest temple in the world. Cambodia took pride of this temple and depicted it in its national flag, lying in its center. It became a monument of Hindu influence to Southeast Asia and to the belief that Kings become Gods once they died. But most importantly, Angkor Wat stood as legacy of the once mighty Khmer Empire.

Gustavus Swift

The industrial revolution in the United States became home of some of the greatest innovation that made the modern world. From electricity to automobile, Americans used their curious mind to solve challenges and create solutions that make the world better. The food industry also got a share of some of innovations. Among the men that profited from it was the founder of one of the most famous food meat processing companies in the United States – Gustavus Swift.

Gia Long

The 19th century opened for Vietnam with a new dynasty in power – the Nguyens. From overlords to the ruling family of Vietnam, it began its journey to power from the persevering and determined Nguyen Phuc Anh, who later took the name – Gia Long.

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