How Great was Charlemagne?

Charlemagne or Charles the Great in French became a legendary icon for Europe. Even being dubbed as "Father of Europe," many countries credit him for setting their roots. But what made Charlemagne the Great?

Prussian Reform Movement: Stein, Humboldt, Hardenberg

The 19th century dawned with turbulence as Europe reached a cross road between 2 paths – the continuation of the old order and transformation to the new order. The Kingdom of Prussia saw right into the eyes of the abyss that led to rise of reformist ministers. The Prussian Reform Movement placed the kingdom towards change.

The Industrial Revolution of Germany

BASF Factory (1881)

She emerged as the most industrialized country by the end of the 19th century. Germany surpassed the home of the industrial revolution – Great Britain. From a once divided nation, its strength and potential became full and unleashed.

Defenestration of Prague in 1618

Defenestration of Prague in 1618

The Thirty Years War began as an internal conflict that started with three individuals being thrown out of a window in a Bohemian castle. The incident began with transition from one leader to the next. In the process, a policy shift also followed. The shift turned out to be for the worst. It instigated contempt and then violence, which eventually resulted to an event known as the 1681 Defenestration of Prague. What events led to the defenestration? What transpired during the event? And lastly, how the Defenestration of Prague shook Europe?

Causes of the Thirty Years' War

The Thirty Years’ War devastated Europe in the early part of the 17th century. But what were the causes that led to the momentous event that changed the face of Europe? What were the situations and events that finally sparked the Thirty Years’ War?

Prussian Economy Under Frederick the Great

Frederick the Great

Germany, today, is one of the most powerful countries in Europe, not to mention that it dominates the affairs of the European Union. Because of its great immense wealth and influence, one can be curious enough to study its history. In the course of studying its history, besides Otto von Bismark and off course, Hitler, another personality that would also be notable is the 18th century Prussian King, Frederick II the Great.

Nuremberg Laws

Adolf Hitler

Nazis and its leader, Adolf Hitler, became notorious for their anti-Semitism. The Holocausts displayed their brutality driven by racism and hatred towards the Jews. Leading to the Final Solution and to the death of millions of Jews, during early years in power, they instituted new laws that made anti-Semitism systematic and legal and to protect the so-called superior Aryan race of Germany. These laws were dubbed as the Nuremberg Laws.

Kristallnacht: The Night of the Broken Glass

Burning a synagogue in Seigen, Germany (Wikimedia, Public Domain)

The horrors of the holocaust were dark chapters in the history of mankind. Millions of Jews were killed. Brutally carried out by Nazis under Adolf Hitler. Dachau and Auschwitz were just some of the concentration camps where atrocities towards the Jews were committed. But in the 1930’s there were already signs of this brutality. In 1938, the Nazis instigated the so-called Kristallnacht or the Night of the Broken Glass.

Clash in Canossa

Henry at Canossa

A showdown between earthly and divine authority. A clash between the power of a king and a pope for the control of the clergy. In the winter of 1077, a showdown between the two most powerful men in Europe. An act to humiliate the other was committed. A clash of the titans at a castle in the Italian town of Canossa.

Tanks that Shaped WWII - Panzer IV

Panzer IV

Russia, 1941 – the German tanks led the advance to the Russian tundra under Operation Barbarossa. Hitler desire to crush the heart of communism and to gain the huge oil supply in the Caucasus. Among the tanks that pushed back the Red Army was the Panzer IV. Tanks shaped World War II. It moved battles from trenches to open plains. Mobility overtook static strategies. And the Panzer IV was among the tanks that played during World War II.

Schmalkaldic League

John Frederick of Saxony

In a period of chaos and division, small nation came to together to form a strong defense alliance that would aim in protecting their interest, this was the condition of the 1500’s Holy Roman Empire. The Holy Roman Emperor aimed in securing his imperial rule and the imposition of his Catholic ideals. A group of small Protestant states feared there demise. And as a result, they formed an alliance that would be known as the Schmalkaldic League.  

Tanks that Shaped WWII - Panzer III

Panzer III in Poland (Credit: German National Archives)

Russia, 1941 – the German Army launched a Blitzkrieg against the Soviet Union. Two years ago, the power of German tanks in combination of quick attack tactics unleashed the power of Hitler’s Germany against the Anglo-French and Polish forces. This time, it was meant against the archenemy of Hitler, the Soviet Union and its leader, Joseph Stalin. One of the main tanks that led the attack were thousands of Panzer III attacking from multiple fronts, racing towards Moscow. Tanks shaped World War II. It moved battles from trenches to open plains. Mobility overtook static strategies. And the Panzer III was among the tanks that played during World War II.

Tanks that Shaped WWII - Panzer II

Panzer II (Credit: German Federal Archives)

France, 1940 – German light mobile tanks spearheaded the advance of German Blitzkrieg in the Ardennes Forest and pushed the Anglo-French forces back. Similar to its contemporary, the Panzer II, was develop in the dark shadows of the Treaty of Versailles, the Panzer II were new German tanks made to carry out the ambitions of Adolf Hitler. Tanks shaped World War II. It moved battles from trenches to open plains. Mobility overtook static strategies. And the Panzer II played a role during World War II.

Swabian League

Augsburg (1493)

There was no Germany during the Medieval Ages, but there were German states. After the death of Charlemagne in 814, the Holy Roman Empire had politically disintegrated rapidly into several entities. Some became virtual independent duchies and city states. In order to maintain independent but with a credible defense, forming alliances was the most practical way. In the north, the Hanseatic League provided this defense alongside commercial prosperity. In the region of Swabia a same alliance was form – the Swabian League.

Tanks that Shaped WWII - Panzer I

Panzer I

Poland, 1939 – German light mobile tanks became the spearhead of Hitler’s blitzkrieg. From the shadow of the Treaty of Versailles, the Panzer I were new German tanks developed that initiated another devastating war. Tanks shaped World War II. It moved battles from trenches to open plains. Mobility overtook static strategies. And the Panzer I was among the tanks that played during World War II.

Purity Law: Protecting Beer in Bavaria

William (Wilhelm) IV, Duke of Bavaria

Before the advent of water treatment and water safety laws, water quality was very poor. It was only use for washing, bathing, but never for human drinking. It was a custom of the people to drink processed beverages, like wine, ale, and also for beer. Popularity of beer led into problems in productions. In order to protect the consumers of beer, two dukes enacted the Purity.

German Customs Union - Zollverein

Proclamation of Wilhelm I as Emperor of the German Empire

Palace of Versailles, 1871 – Prussian King Wilhelm I was proclaimed the first Kaiser of the new united German Empire. After a decade of fighting, finally, Prussia succeeded in unifying a long time divided nation. Unification was indeed brought by “blood and iron.” But unification seem to had been brought closer by economic ties brought decades before the pronouncement the German Reich in Versailles. Similar to the Hanseatic League of the Medieval Ages, the Zollverein brought economic unity between numerous German States.

The Zollverein was a customs union formed by several German States during the 19th century. This meant that trade between members states were free and liberal. Alongside, a uniform customs policy would also be enacted by its members. Its economic implication brought energy in trade and ushered the rise of industrial Germany. But perhaps its political implication, it allowed Prussia to prepare for its conquests to unify all of Germany.

The Zollverein began during the early 1800’s when the idea of free trade began to spread to mainland Europe. During the time of the Napoleonic Wars, several German state began to liberalized and stimulate their local trade by abolishing internal tariffs. Internal tariffs involved the payment of a certain percentage of the price of a product once in crossed a region of the state. This caused for distribution of local goods to slump and dragged down the rise of local products. Many states saw the hindrance of local tariffs and one by one, some states began to abolish this system. In 1807, Bavaria abolished its internal tariffs. A year later, Wurttemberg followed and then four years later, the German state of Baden removed it as well.

However, the most celebrated abolishing of internal tariff was made in May 1818, when the leading German Kingdom of Prussia decided to abolish its internal tariffs. But what made the Prussia’s decision was also incorporating free trade with its neighboring German states.  Many intellectuals welcomed and rejoiced upon the decision of Prussia. The famous German economist Friedrich von List that promoted free trade hailed the decision. Also, the Finance Minister of Prussia, Friedrich von Motz, supported the idea of free trade among German states and even played a role to the formal creation of the Zollverein in 1833.

Prussia welcomed and invited some of the German states to join their customs union during the 1820’s. Some took notice of the promise of prosperity and vibrant state if they joined Prussia. Some were harassed by Prussia in order to join their customs union. Infrastructure development was offered by Prussian diplomats to other German states to persuade them to join. Little by little, other German states joined Prussia.

In the 1820’s other German states decided to form their own customs union to compete with the of Prussia. In 1820 a customs union was attempted to be formed by the German states of Wurttemberg, Baden, Bavaria, Hesse-Darmstadt, and some Thuringian states. The negotiations went into deadlock. But the idea of a separate customs union was still sought by Wurttemberg and Bavaria and proceeded with the negotiations for the formation of the Southern German Zollverein in 1828. At the central region of Germany, another customs union was formed. The German states of Hanover, Brunswick, Nassau, and Hesse-Darmstadt decided to form their own Central German Trade Union in 1828 also.

Eventually, Prussia wanted to expand its customs union as it also meant prestige and economic growth for the Kingdom. Negotiations for the merging of the three unions, from 1828, underwent with the two other customs union. In 1829, a Prussian Zollverein and the Southern German Zollverein concluded a trade treaty. It was a first step towards the final combination of the three Zollverein in 1833. The Deutscher Zollverein was finally established. However, there remained some resistance from Prussian economic aggression. Hanover, Brunswick and Oldenburg ceded from the Central German Union in order to form their separate customs union – the Steuerverein. The resistance of the Steuerverein continued for several decades. Other little German states had no match for Prussia and its Zollverein and decided to join. By 1840’s, twenty eight out of thirty four German States were members of the Zollverein. A decade later, being surrounded and isolated by the Zollverein, the Steuerverein surrendered and in 1854 it joined the Zollverein.

The Zollverein created a huge common market at the center of Europe. It orchestrated infrastructure development through its members, including roads and railways. It fostered future industrialization. Trade was promoted through the establishment of a uniform currency based on the Prussian Taler during the 1850’s. Standards of weight and measurements were issued. 

Prussia utilized the Zollverein into its political ambitions. During the early years of the Zollverein, Austria as part of the union was being discussed in Vienna. The chancellor, Metternich, was hesitant to the membership of Austria. Under economic implication, Austria could be placed under the influence of Prussia that used its currency as the most widely used in the union. For political implication, Austria joining the Zollverein meant that it was conceding to Berlin in the leadership race of Germany. So Austria never joined the Zollverein.

Meanwhile, in Berlin, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck used the Zollverein in unifying Germany. He saw that economic integration was important for political integration to follow. He also saw the Zollverein as a way to influence other German states into recognizing Prussia as the future leader of a unified Germany.

In 1871, after the Franco-Prussian War, the German Empire was proclaimed. Many German states were hesitant in being part of the empire and losing their identity and their sovereignty. So an imperial and centralized government had to come slowly. Alongside political autonomy still being retained, some economic autonomy was also given. Thus, the Zollverein continued to flourish even under the period of Imperial Germany.

The customs union Zollverein would remain existent until the early 20th century. It would then meet its end as the Great War became unfavorable for imperial Germany. Alas, after the signing of the treaty of Versailles, the monarchy of Wilhelm II was deposed, along with him was the dissolution of the Zollverein.

See also:
Delian League: The Athenian Empire
Hanseatic League: Economic Group of Germany
Holy League: The Victors of Lepanto
Kalmar Union
Schmalkaldic League
Swabian League

Bibliography:

Anmer, C. & D. Anmer. Dictionary of Business and Economics. New York: The Free Press, 1984. 

Hodge, C. (ed.). Encyclopedia of the Age of Imperialism, 1800 – 1914. Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2008. 

Kitchen, M. A History of Modern Germany: 1800 to the Present. Maryland: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012.

Hanseatic League: Economic Group of Germany

Lübeck - center of the Hanse

A united German States was not formed until the establishment of the German Empire in 1871 under the leader of Prussia, its King Wilhelm I, and its brilliant Chancellor, Otto von Bismarck. In present Germany before the 1871, several small German states were established and ruled by local princes. During the Middle Ages, the Holy Roman Empire existed under the control of the Germans, but the Empire was fragmented by Princes who owned lands and treated it like their own smaller kingdom. The closest form of united Germany was a mercantile organization known as the Hanseatic League or otherwise known as Hanse.

Ostpolitik: Looking Peace in the East

Willy Brandt

Germany, 1969 – the German nation was divided for over two decades. The Adenauer era already ended six years ago. Two chancellor had come to power, Ludwig Erhard and Kurt Kiesinger. The Cold War was still raging. Just a year before, in 1968, Soviet aggression was demonstrated in its invasion of Czechoslovakia. The world feared for a new era of Soviet menace. The Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), under its new Chancellor, the once Mayor of West Berlin, Willy Brandt, instead of making a hard stand against the Eastern Communist bloc, decided to engage them under his foreign policy known as the Eastern Policy or Ostpolitik.

Hallstein Doctrine

Flags of West Germany (left) and East Germany (right)

In the 1950s, Germany sat right in the middle of the Cold War and divided between the capitalist democratic West and the communist East. The West German state, known as the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) reconstructed and economically developed. Under its chancellor, Konrad Adenauer, the country aligned with democracies of Europe and also worked towards European integration. In contrast, the Eastern German State, known as the German Democratic Republic (GDR) joined the communist bloc falling to the sphere of influence of the Union Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). For West German Chancellor Adenauer, he sought to reunite the 2 German states by preventing the recognition of the other German State.