“Darius the King says: Ahuramazda, the greatest of the gods, created me, made me king, bestowed upon me this kingdom, great, possessed of good horses, possessed of good men.”
A powerful piece of declaration Darius painted himself – a divinely ordained giant among men. Indeed, he presided over the largest land empire in the ancient world at the zenith of its power from 522 to 486 BCE.
Early Life
Much of the details of the life of Darius came from the Greek Historian Herodotus and Darius’ inscriptions. He had one of the most recorded reigns among all the Persians, but all the records must be taken with a grain of salt. Herodotus tended to paint a negative view of the Persians, while Darius knew how to depict himself in a good picture.
Darius was born around 550 BC, a son of Hystaspes (Vishtaspa in Old Persian) who served as a Satrap of Parthia and Rohodugune (Vadagauna). According to the Behistun Inscription, Darius and Cyrus the Great shared the same ancestor, a mysterious founder of the Achaemenids – Achaemenes. Since Cyrus and Cambyses did not mention Achaemenes, many suspected the existence of Achaemenes as Darius’ fabrication to legitimize his claim to the throne.
During the reign of Cambyses II, Darius served in the royal guards fighting in the campaigns in Egypt. In 522 BCE, a brother of Cambyses, Bardiya (Smerdis), took power by gaining support through promises of reducing taxation and stoping conscription for 3 years. However, Darius claimed that Cambyses had ordered the death of Bardiya during the initial phase of his invasion of Egypt and the one claiming the throne was an imposter – a Magi named Gaumata. He painted Bardiya or Gaumata as a brutal ruler who took properties unjustly and ordered the death of many.
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| Depiction of Cambyses II |
Once Darius returned to the capital of Susa, Darius plotted with 6 other nobles to depose Bardiya, namely: (1) Vidafarna (Intaphernes), (2) Utana (Otanes), (3) Gaubaruva (Gobryas), (4) Vidarna (Hydarnes), (5) Bagabuxsha (Megabyzus), and (6) Ardumanish. Darius and the nobles barged into the palace and murdered Bardiya. He took power through cunning means in a competition with the other 6 to become King of Persia.
To secure his hold on power, he strategically used marriage to his advantage. He married 2 daughters of Cyrus the Great, namely Atossa and Artystone. He also married the daughter of the real Bardiya, Parmys and a daughter of his ally Otanes.
Rebellions
With the chaos in the center, the peripheries of the Empire took the opportunity to declare independence. It seemed the Achaemenid Empire stood on the brink of collapse.
In the Behistun Inscription, Darius enumerated the rebellions he had crushed. He boasted fighting 19 battles in the first year of his reign. He also listed the names of the rebel leaders he had vanquished. Egyptians, Babylonians, and Elamites among the frequent rebels.
Darius fought and crushed every single rebellion with some resulting to nasty reprisals. In Babylon, the crushing of the rebellion led to the execution of 3,000. The Persian King campaigned until 521 BCE.
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| Persian empire in its peak |
Expansion of the Empire
With internal rebellions quelled, Darius focused his attention against the Persian Empire’s neighbors. In 519 BCE, he successfully defeated the Scythians and executed their leader Skunkha. In 517 BCE, Darius returned to Egypt and invaded Libya. In the east, he annexed lands up to the Indus River and supported an exploration mission led by Scylax of Caryanda.
In 513 BCE, Darius returned to the west to fight the European Scythians in the Danube River. Darius’ host pressed on amidst desolation created by the Scythians who retreated while implementing a scorched earth policy. This caused a shortage in supplies forcing Darius to retreat. Nonetheless, he had the consolation prize of having Thrace, Macedonia, Lemnos Island and Imbros Island in the Aegean Sea. These latest additions made the Black Sea part of the Persian Empire’s sphere of influence.
Consolidation of the Empire
Successful in military affairs, Darius consolidated his hold in power by improving the Empire’s administration and economy. It contributed to Persia reaching the zenith of its power and prestige.
Administration
Darius reformed the administration of the empire putting emphasis on efficiency and internal security. He increased the number of satraps. Satrapies or provinces ruled by Satraps or governors had already existed during the time of Cyrus the Great, but Darius expanded its number to 20. Darius gave power to Satraps authority over local affairs, dispensation of justice, collection of taxes and tribute, and conscription of local populace.
He strengthened domestic security by establishing an intelligence network called the King’s Eye, Darius’ version of FBI or MI5. He also employed supervisors of satraps to ensure their quality management of the provinces.
He then improved communication and the Empire's inter-connectivity. He became the famous builder King of Persia. He ordered the construction of the Royal Road that connected Sardis in Anatolia to the capital of Susa. He also authorized the construction of granaries across the empire to store supplies for the armies marching against foreign invasion or internal rebellion. It also stored supplies for the population in case of emergency such as famines.
Tolerance
Darius followed the tradition of toleration since Cyrus the Great. Right after the crushing of rebellion, he reinstated the tradition of tolerance. He hoped to bring back a sense of peace and stability.
Darius respected local tradition and gods. He offered and sacrificed to Egyptian, Babylonians, Elamite, and even Greek gods, in particular Apollo. With Egypt as an example, Darius assumed Egyptian titles. He ordered the construction of a temple to the Egyptian god Amon and restored other temples. He codified local laws. He also supported the reestablishment of a medical school in the Temple of Sais. In the case of Israelite, in 515 BCE, Darius supported the reconstruction of the Great Temple in Jerusalem.
Economic Prosperity
Darius understood that security and prosperity came hand in hand. Under his reign, Persia had the largest economy with vast resources both necessities and luxuries under Persian hands. Trade flourished and Darius contributed in keeping it robust. In 498 BCE, he ordered the construction of the canal that connected the Nile River and the Red Sea connecting the Mediterranean and the Red Sea a millennium before the construction of the modern Suez Canal. Under Darius, the Persian Empire enjoyed plenty of resources and manpower.
Cultural Development
The vast wealth of the Empire financed Darius’ patronage of arts and culture which meant to display his power, grandiosity, and prosperity.
Darius patronized Zoroastrianism promoting it as the unifying religion of the Empire. Though he made it virtually the state religion, he refrained from bigotry.
He also supported the development of the Aryan Script to replace the widely used cuneiform.
In architecture, Darius displayed the best of Persia’s artistic skills through various palaces meant to intimidate foreign dignitaries and locals alike (For greater detail, see: Persian Achaemenid Architecture). Susa became Darius’ showpiece. He ordered its re-fortification and construction of a new Apadana or audience hall. Its foundation bore the enumeration of the contribution of each of the Empire’s people in its construction.
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| Palace of Darius in Susa |
Susa became a teaser for Persepolis. Its sheer size and beauty dazzled people of the ancient and modern worlds. Its staggering high roofs, pillars, and reliefs show how the people of the world bow to the Persians. Though the palace only saw completion after the death of Darius, his successors used it to awe envoys sent by neighbors and Satraps.
Greco-Persian War
The Greco-Persian War, however, became the most controversial legacy left by Darius to his successors. It began due to the growing strength of Persia in Anatolia. It later blew out to a campaign that pitted the Persian East and Greek West.
When Darius took both sides of the Dardanelles, Persia effectively controlled the Black Sea trade. Greeks feared for their economic security, especially the grains from the Black Sea. To counter Persia, Greek city-states of Athens and Eritrea supported rebellions in Anatolia. In 499 BCE the Ionians rebelled. It grew to a scale that rebels burned the rich city of Sardis.
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| The burning of Sardis by the Greeks during the Ionian Revolt in 498 BCE. |
Darius, after receiving reports of the burning, mobilized the Persian army to crush the rebellion. Through the Royal Road the Persian army poured into the region. Brutal fighting lasted for 6 years finally ending in 493 BCE. Only then Darius discovered Athens’ and Eritrea’s role in the rebellion.
With this information, Darius sent punitive expeditions against the Greek city-states. In 492, Persian forces marched into Thrace and Macedonia and faced stiff resistance. He also sent a fleet led by his son-in-law, Mardonius, but it suffered a disaster and sank off Mt. Athos.
More expeditions followed. In 490 BCE, Darius sent an army led by a Mede named Datis that successfully invaded the Aegean islands of Cyclades and Eretria. A Persian army finally landed in mainland Greece, in the field of Marathon. It faced defeat at the hands of the Greeks, and threatened Athens by sea. This attack too failed after seeing the city ready and well-defended for a siege. Though Darius’ forces failed to invade mainland Greece, the Persian navy controlled the Aegean Sea.
Decline and Death
More plans had been drafted by Darius to destroy the Greeks, but it did not materialize when in November 486 BCE, he passed away. Persians mourned and buried him in honor in Naqsh-e-Rostam near Persepolis. His son Xerxes took power and he continued Darius’ campaigns against the Greeks.
Darius led Persia to its peak of power. His campaigns against the Greeks, however, sowed the seed of Persia’s decline and fall.
See also:
Bibliography:
General Reference:
“Darius I.” In The Persian Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia. Edited by Mehrdad Kia. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, LLC, 2016.
Pettman, Andrew. “Darius.” In Encyclopedia of World History. Edited by Marsha Ackermann et. al. New York, New York: Facts on File, Inc., 2008.
Websites:
Munn-Rankin, J.M. “Darius I.” In Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed on November 1, 2018. URL: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Darius-I
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