Ghana Empire: Land of Gold

Empire of Ghana

West Africa saw the rise of powerful and very wealthy kingdoms and even empire. Various terrain and environment existed within the African continent. But rivers provided fertile lands capable of supporting the rise of civilization. Already, during the time of the ancient, the Nile River permitted the rise of the Egyptian civilization in the Saharan desert of Africa. And in West Africa, the rivers of Senegal and Niger gave rise to several kingdoms as well. One of the first kingdoms that rose prominently in the region was the Ghana Empire.

Sukhothai Economy of Ramkhamhaeng

King Ramkhamhaeng (Credit: Ananda)

Thailand, an oriental country in the heart of Southeast Asia. Its lands are gifted with numerous rivers that provided fertile plains for farming. Its culture is heavily influenced by the Indians from the west. During the 13th century no Thai kingdom existed until the Kingdom of Sukhothai rose from the lands conquered by the Khmers. One of the most economically prosperous period of this kingdom was under the reign of King Ramkhamhaeng. His reign saw great flow of harvest and wealth. Trade flourish without barriers. An economy that flowered during the golden age of a Thai Kingdom.

Cohongs: Domination of Trade

The Thirteen Factories (1825)

China’s rulers were anxious about the proselytizing of the Christians in its ports. In the mid 1700’s, the Manchu Qing government decreed that all foreign trade of China would only pass to the ports of the southern city of Canton. And in Canton, only few were allowed to transact with the outsiders. Those who were only allowed to mingle with the western traders were called Cohongs (Kohongs or simply Hongs). They would serve as intermediary between Beijing and the Europeans.

Thirteen Factories: Refuge In Canton

Thirteen Factories (1825)

Trade was limited to port of Canton in China. During the mid-18th century, the Qing government in Beijing permitted all foreign trading ships to land only in Canton. Ever since, the port became a thriving center of foreign trade. And near to the docks, a whole street, which was the center of all trading activities, became the refuge of foreigners and became known as the Thirteen Factories.

Canton System

Canton, 1850

It was very stylish and a status symbol for an individual in Europe in the past to own oriental items from China. Today, almost anything is made in China. However, before the 19th century, items made from China were limited in the west, thus had high prices. One reason was the limited trade conducted between the West and China. It was due to the 18th century Canton System.

Tulip Mania: The First Big Bust

Semper Augustus - a popular species
of tulip during the Mania

In 2008, a global recession hit the world hard. It is a fact in an economy that there are periods of highs and lows, booms and bust. Bursting bubbles were inevitable if an authority is not careful enough. Bubbles are characterize by rapid rise of prices of a commodity and its sudden deflation caused by different circumstances. In history, one of the weirdest but significant bubbles was started by a flower – a tulip.

The Life of Jay Gould

Jay Gould

He was a man brave enough to clash with one of the wealthiest man in the United States. He proved to be even bolder when he was prepared to use illegal means to achieve his goals. He profited at the expense of other’s money and life savings. From a poor humble background, the life of Jay Gould horrified many.

Dejima Island: The Window to Japan

Dejima Island

As European incursion to Asia increase during the 16th century, many areas fell to become colonies of the west. Japan, an archipelago in East Asia was under the rule of the Tokugawa Bakufu or shogunate. Under the early Tokugawa Shoguns, Japan had trade relations with many Europeans. From the Spanish, to Portuguese, and the Dutch, Japanese goods were sold and imported goods brought. However, as volume of trade increase, so as the fear of the Shoguns of the consequence of the economic relation. They feared that rising trade meant the rising influence of the foreigners to Japan. As a result, the Tokugawa closed the country and expelled all foreigners from all European nations except for one. The Dutch, via the Dutch East India Company, were allowed to stay but only in a tiny island off of Nagasaki - the island of Dejima.

Symbol of Lebanon in the Ancient World

Lebanese Flag

Lebanon is a country located in the Middle East. It is surrounded by Syria to the north and east; by Israel to the south; and the vast expanse of the Mediterranean Sea to the west. Its flag has three horizontal stripes, two red stripes with a white stripe in the middle. At the center of the flag lies a cedar tree. But why a cedar tree placed in the middle of the flag of this Middle Eastern country?

German Customs Union - Zollverein

Proclamation of Wilhelm I as Emperor of the German Empire

Palace of Versailles, 1871 – Prussian King Wilhelm I was proclaimed the first Kaiser of the new united German Empire. After a decade of fighting, finally, Prussia succeeded in unifying a long time divided nation. Unification was indeed brought by “blood and iron.” But unification seem to had been brought closer by economic ties brought decades before the pronouncement the German Reich in Versailles. Similar to the Hanseatic League of the Medieval Ages, the Zollverein brought economic unity between numerous German States.

The Zollverein was a customs union formed by several German States during the 19th century. This meant that trade between members states were free and liberal. Alongside, a uniform customs policy would also be enacted by its members. Its economic implication brought energy in trade and ushered the rise of industrial Germany. But perhaps its political implication, it allowed Prussia to prepare for its conquests to unify all of Germany.

The Zollverein began during the early 1800’s when the idea of free trade began to spread to mainland Europe. During the time of the Napoleonic Wars, several German state began to liberalized and stimulate their local trade by abolishing internal tariffs. Internal tariffs involved the payment of a certain percentage of the price of a product once in crossed a region of the state. This caused for distribution of local goods to slump and dragged down the rise of local products. Many states saw the hindrance of local tariffs and one by one, some states began to abolish this system. In 1807, Bavaria abolished its internal tariffs. A year later, Wurttemberg followed and then four years later, the German state of Baden removed it as well.

However, the most celebrated abolishing of internal tariff was made in May 1818, when the leading German Kingdom of Prussia decided to abolish its internal tariffs. But what made the Prussia’s decision was also incorporating free trade with its neighboring German states.  Many intellectuals welcomed and rejoiced upon the decision of Prussia. The famous German economist Friedrich von List that promoted free trade hailed the decision. Also, the Finance Minister of Prussia, Friedrich von Motz, supported the idea of free trade among German states and even played a role to the formal creation of the Zollverein in 1833.

Prussia welcomed and invited some of the German states to join their customs union during the 1820’s. Some took notice of the promise of prosperity and vibrant state if they joined Prussia. Some were harassed by Prussia in order to join their customs union. Infrastructure development was offered by Prussian diplomats to other German states to persuade them to join. Little by little, other German states joined Prussia.

In the 1820’s other German states decided to form their own customs union to compete with the of Prussia. In 1820 a customs union was attempted to be formed by the German states of Wurttemberg, Baden, Bavaria, Hesse-Darmstadt, and some Thuringian states. The negotiations went into deadlock. But the idea of a separate customs union was still sought by Wurttemberg and Bavaria and proceeded with the negotiations for the formation of the Southern German Zollverein in 1828. At the central region of Germany, another customs union was formed. The German states of Hanover, Brunswick, Nassau, and Hesse-Darmstadt decided to form their own Central German Trade Union in 1828 also.

Eventually, Prussia wanted to expand its customs union as it also meant prestige and economic growth for the Kingdom. Negotiations for the merging of the three unions, from 1828, underwent with the two other customs union. In 1829, a Prussian Zollverein and the Southern German Zollverein concluded a trade treaty. It was a first step towards the final combination of the three Zollverein in 1833. The Deutscher Zollverein was finally established. However, there remained some resistance from Prussian economic aggression. Hanover, Brunswick and Oldenburg ceded from the Central German Union in order to form their separate customs union – the Steuerverein. The resistance of the Steuerverein continued for several decades. Other little German states had no match for Prussia and its Zollverein and decided to join. By 1840’s, twenty eight out of thirty four German States were members of the Zollverein. A decade later, being surrounded and isolated by the Zollverein, the Steuerverein surrendered and in 1854 it joined the Zollverein.

The Zollverein created a huge common market at the center of Europe. It orchestrated infrastructure development through its members, including roads and railways. It fostered future industrialization. Trade was promoted through the establishment of a uniform currency based on the Prussian Taler during the 1850’s. Standards of weight and measurements were issued. 

Prussia utilized the Zollverein into its political ambitions. During the early years of the Zollverein, Austria as part of the union was being discussed in Vienna. The chancellor, Metternich, was hesitant to the membership of Austria. Under economic implication, Austria could be placed under the influence of Prussia that used its currency as the most widely used in the union. For political implication, Austria joining the Zollverein meant that it was conceding to Berlin in the leadership race of Germany. So Austria never joined the Zollverein.

Meanwhile, in Berlin, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck used the Zollverein in unifying Germany. He saw that economic integration was important for political integration to follow. He also saw the Zollverein as a way to influence other German states into recognizing Prussia as the future leader of a unified Germany.

In 1871, after the Franco-Prussian War, the German Empire was proclaimed. Many German states were hesitant in being part of the empire and losing their identity and their sovereignty. So an imperial and centralized government had to come slowly. Alongside political autonomy still being retained, some economic autonomy was also given. Thus, the Zollverein continued to flourish even under the period of Imperial Germany.

The customs union Zollverein would remain existent until the early 20th century. It would then meet its end as the Great War became unfavorable for imperial Germany. Alas, after the signing of the treaty of Versailles, the monarchy of Wilhelm II was deposed, along with him was the dissolution of the Zollverein.

See also:
Delian League: The Athenian Empire
Hanseatic League: Economic Group of Germany
Holy League: The Victors of Lepanto
Kalmar Union
Schmalkaldic League
Swabian League

Bibliography:

Anmer, C. & D. Anmer. Dictionary of Business and Economics. New York: The Free Press, 1984. 

Hodge, C. (ed.). Encyclopedia of the Age of Imperialism, 1800 – 1914. Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2008. 

Kitchen, M. A History of Modern Germany: 1800 to the Present. Maryland: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012.

Economy of the Gupta Empire

Chandragupta II

India occupies a large area of Asia. It is characterized as a sub-continent for its large territory. Alongside of its vast and wide ranging terrain it was gifted with many rivers that made its soil fertile for various wide of crops. It allowed subsistence and even wealth to its farmers. It allowed wide ranging of economic activities which had and would sustain various empires in history.  The most famous of these empires was the Mughal Empire that reign through the 16th to the 19th century. But even before back there were other powerful empires that had capitalized on the natural wealth of India. One such empire was the Gupta Empire.

Canals and Glasses: Glass Industry of the Republic of Venice

Murano Island

Venice was once a marshy swamp with no prospects of being a city. But with innovation of the early Venetians, a new city rose. Famous canals, today with its famous gondolas, erected that allowed a city to rise. With their engineering brilliance, they also showed skills in business. They appeared in ports across the Mediterranean Sea as good traders. Their opened mindedness allowed them to trade with the Muslims and other people along the region. As the city rose into wealth and prominence, they began to enter to different industry and worked for excellence. One of the most famous products of Venice was Glass.

Kilwa: Golden Port in East of Africa

Map of East Africa

Gold is one of the world’s precious metal. It was used as a currency. The dollar for instance used the gold standard for the value of the dollar. Only mined in few areas, its scarcity and the great color of it makes it into one of the most treasured metals in the world. In history, it built empires, funded wars, made or break people. In Africa, it was the center of the Trans-Saharan Trade. In the east of Sahara, it was also coveted by tribes and kingdoms that wanted to experience prosperity.